The intermediate band approach in the third solar cell generation context

Hydrogenated amorphous silicon thin films were deposited using a high pressure sputtering (HPS) system. In this work, we have studied the composition and optical properties of the films (band-gap, absorption coefficient), and their dependence with the deposition parameters. For films deposited at high pressure (1 mbar), composition measurements show a critical dependence of the purity of the films with the RF power. Films manufactured with RF-power above 80W exhibit good properties for future application, similar to the films deposited by CVD (Chemical Vapor Deposition) for hydrogenated amorphous silicon.

Analysis of the Iberian Power Forward Price Formation

The price formation of the Iberian Energy Derivatives Market-the power futures market-starting in July 2006, is assessed until November 2011, through the evolution of the difference between forward and spot prices in the delivery period (“ex-post forward risk premium”) and the comparison with the forward generation costs from natural gas (“clean spark spread”). The premium tends to be positive in all existing mechanisms (futures, Over-the-Counter and auctions for catering part of the last resort supplies). Since year 2011, the values are smaller due to regulatorily recognized prices for coal power plants. The power futures are strongly correlated with European gas prices. The spreads built with prompt contracts tend also to be positive. The biggest ones are for the month contract, followed by the quarter contract and then by the year contract. Therefore, gas fired generation companies can maximize profits trading with contracts of shorter maturity.

New steps in the development of the second generation TEC GESMEY

The paper shows the results of the new steps that have been done in the development of the tidal energy converter GESMEY. These are the design, construction and trials into the sea of a 1/10 scale prototype and also the construction with the same scale of the buoy BOSCEM, that anchors the device and lets it in the correct work position and depth, along the two directions of the flow that the daily tidal cycle have. Inside the paper is described the objectives and the methodology of the experimental trials that were ca rry out the last summer with the scale prototype. GESMEY is a new type of tidal energy converter (TEC) that has the capability to exploit currents in waters over forty meters by itself and it gets only using its internal ballast system the necessary equilibrium between hy drostatics and hydrodynamics forces to make the emersion and the immersion procedures without any other help. Finally the paper shows the description of the results obtained over the performance of the devices along the immersion, emersion and floating transport manoeuvres and afterwards the results, that were obtained along the generation power tests that were carried out, are shown.

High-frequency signal generation using 1550 nm VCSEL subject to two-frequency optical injection

We experimentally investigate high-frequency microwave signal generation using a 1550 nm single-mode VCSEL subject to two-frequency optical injection. We first consider a situation in which the injected signals come from two similar VCSELs. The polarization of the injected light is parallel to that of the injected VCSEL. We obtain that the VCSEL can be locked to one of the injected signals, but the observed microwave signal is originated by beating at the photodetector. In a second situation we consider injected signals that come from two external cavity tunable lasers with a significant increase of the injected power with respect to the VCSEL-by-VCSEL injection case. The polarization of the injected light is orthogonal to that of the free-running slave VCSEL. We show that in this case it is possible to generate a microwave signal inside the VCSEL cavity. © (2013) COPYRIGHT Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers (SPIE). Downloading of the abstract is permitted for personal use only.

Wide bandwidth envelope trackers with reduced switching frequency for RF power amplifier

El requerimiento de proveer alta frecuencia de datos en los modernos sistema de comunicación inalámbricos resulta en complejas señales moduladas de radio-frequencia (RF) con un gran ancho de banda y alto ratio pico-promedio (PAPR). Para garantizar la linealidad del comportamiento, los amplificadores lineales de potencia comunes funcionan típicamente entre 4 y 10 dB de back-o_ desde la máxima potencia de salida, ocasionando una baja eficiencia del sistema. La eliminación y restauración de la evolvente (EER) y el seguimiento de la evolvente (ET) son dos prometedoras técnicas para resolver el problema de la eficiencia. Tanto en EER como en ET, es complicado diseñar un amplificador de potencia que sea eficiente para señales de RF de alto ancho de banda y alto PAPR. Una propuesta común para los amplificadores de potencia es incluir un convertidor de potencia de muy alta eficiencia operando a frecuencias más altas que el ancho de banda de la señal RF. En este caso, la potencia perdida del convertidor ocasionado por la alta frecuencia desaconseja su práctica cuando el ancho de banda es muy alto. La solución a este problema es el enfoque de esta disertación que presenta dos arquitecturas de amplificador evolvente: convertidor híbrido-serie con una técnica de evolvente lenta y un convertidor multinivel basado en un convertidor reductor multifase con control de tiempo mínimo. En la primera arquitectura, una topología híbrida está compuesta de una convertidor reductor conmutado y un regulador lineal en serie que trabajan juntos para ajustar la tensión de salida para seguir a la evolvente con precisión. Un algoritmo de generación de una evolvente lenta crea una forma de onda con una pendiente limitada que es menor que la pendiente máxima de la evolvente original. La salida del convertidor reductor sigue esa forma de onda en vez de la evolvente original usando una menor frecuencia de conmutación, porque la forma de onda no sólo tiene una pendiente reducida sino también un menor ancho de banda. De esta forma, el regulador lineal se usa para filtrar la forma de onda tiene una pérdida de potencia adicional. Dependiendo de cuánto se puede reducir la pendiente de la evolvente para producir la forma de onda, existe un trade-off entre la pérdida de potencia del convertidor reductor relacionada con la frecuencia de conmutación y el regulador lineal. El punto óptimo referido a la menor pérdida de potencia total del amplificador de evolvente es capaz de identificarse con la ayuda de modelo preciso de pérdidas que es una combinación de modelos comportamentales y analíticos de pérdidas. Además, se analiza el efecto en la respuesta del filtro de salida del convertidor reductor. Un filtro de dampeo paralelo extra es necesario para eliminar la oscilación resonante del filtro de salida porque el convertidor reductor opera en lazo abierto. La segunda arquitectura es un amplificador de evolvente de seguimiento de tensión multinivel. Al contrario que los convertidores que usan multi-fuentes, un convertidor reductor multifase se emplea para generar la tensión multinivel. En régimen permanente, el convertidor reductor opera en puntos del ciclo de trabajo con cancelación completa del rizado. El número de niveles de tensión es igual al número de fases de acuerdo a las características del entrelazamiento del convertidor reductor. En la transición, un control de tiempo mínimo (MTC) para convertidores multifase es novedosamente propuesto y desarrollado para cambiar la tensión de salida del convertidor reductor entre diferentes niveles. A diferencia de controles convencionales de tiempo mínimo para convertidores multifase con inductancia equivalente, el propuesto MTC considera el rizado de corriente por cada fase basado en un desfase fijo que resulta en diferentes esquemas de control entre las fases. La ventaja de este control es que todas las corrientes vuelven a su fase en régimen permanente después de la transición para que la siguiente transición pueda empezar muy pronto, lo que es muy favorable para la aplicación de seguimiento de tensión multinivel. Además, el control es independiente de la carga y no es afectado por corrientes de fase desbalanceadas. Al igual que en la primera arquitectura, hay una etapa lineal con la misma función, conectada en serie con el convertidor reductor multifase. Dado que tanto el régimen permanente como el estado de transición del convertidor no están fuertemente relacionados con la frecuencia de conmutación, la frecuencia de conmutación puede ser reducida para el alto ancho de banda de la evolvente, la cual es la principal consideración de esta arquitectura. La optimización de la segunda arquitectura para más alto anchos de banda de la evolvente es presentada incluyendo el diseño del filtro de salida, la frecuencia de conmutación y el número de fases. El área de diseño del filtro está restringido por la transición rápida y el mínimo pulso del hardware. La rápida transición necesita un filtro pequeño pero la limitación del pulso mínimo del hardware lleva el diseño en el sentido contrario. La frecuencia de conmutación del convertidor afecta principalmente a la limitación del mínimo pulso y a las pérdidas de potencia. Con una menor frecuencia de conmutación, el ancho de pulso en la transición es más pequeño. El número de fases relativo a la aplicación específica puede ser optimizado en términos de la eficiencia global. Otro aspecto de la optimización es mejorar la estrategia de control. La transición permite seguir algunas partes de la evolvente que son más rápidas de lo que el hardware puede soportar al precio de complejidad. El nuevo método de sincronización de la transición incrementa la frecuencia de la transición, permitiendo que la tensión multinivel esté más cerca de la evolvente. Ambas estrategias permiten que el convertidor pueda seguir una evolvente con un ancho de banda más alto que la limitación de la etapa de potencia. El modelo de pérdidas del amplificador de evolvente se ha detallado y validado mediante medidas. El mecanismo de pérdidas de potencia del convertidor reductor tiene que incluir las transiciones en tiempo real, lo cual es diferente del clásico modelos de pérdidas de un convertidor reductor síncrono. Este modelo estima la eficiencia del sistema y juega un papel muy importante en el proceso de optimización. Finalmente, la segunda arquitectura del amplificador de evolvente se integra con el amplificador de clase F. La medida del sistema EER prueba el ahorro de energía con el amplificador de evolvente propuesto sin perjudicar la linealidad del sistema. ABSTRACT The requirement of delivering high data rates in modern wireless communication systems results in complex modulated RF signals with wide bandwidth and high peak-to-average ratio (PAPR). In order to guarantee the linearity performance, the conventional linear power amplifiers typically work at 4 to 10 dB back-off from the maximum output power, leading to low system efficiency. The envelope elimination and restoration (EER) and envelope tracking (ET) are two promising techniques to overcome the efficiency problem. In both EER and ET, it is challenging to design efficient envelope amplifier for wide bandwidth and high PAPR RF signals. An usual approach for envelope amplifier includes a high-efficiency switching power converter operating at a frequency higher than the RF signal's bandwidth. In this case, the power loss of converter caused by high switching operation becomes unbearable for system efficiency when signal bandwidth is very wide. The solution of this problem is the focus of this dissertation that presents two architectures of envelope amplifier: a hybrid series converter with slow-envelope technique and a multilevel converter based on a multiphase buck converter with the minimum time control. In the first architecture, a hybrid topology is composed of a switched buck converter and a linear regulator in series that work together to adjust the output voltage to track the envelope with accuracy. A slow envelope generation algorithm yields a waveform with limited slew rate that is lower than the maximum slew rate of the original envelope. The buck converter's output follows this waveform instead of the original envelope using lower switching frequency, because the waveform has not only reduced slew rate but also reduced bandwidth. In this way, the linear regulator used to filter the waveform has additional power loss. Depending on how much reduction of the slew rate of envelope in order to obtain that waveform, there is a trade-off between the power loss of buck converter related to the switching frequency and the power loss of linear regulator. The optimal point referring to the lowest total power loss of this envelope amplifier is identified with the help of a precise power loss model that is a combination of behavioral and analytic loss model. In addition, the output filter's effect on the response is analyzed. An extra parallel damping filter is needed to eliminate the resonant oscillation of output filter L and C, because the buck converter operates in open loop. The second architecture is a multilevel voltage tracking envelope amplifier. Unlike the converters using multi-sources, a multiphase buck converter is employed to generate the multilevel voltage. In the steady state, the buck converter operates at complete ripple cancellation points of duty cycle. The number of the voltage levels is equal to the number of phases according the characteristics of interleaved buck converter. In the transition, a minimum time control (MTC) for multiphase converter is originally proposed and developed for changing the output voltage of buck converter between different levels. As opposed to conventional minimum time control for multiphase converter with equivalent inductance, the proposed MTC considers the current ripple of each phase based on the fixed phase shift resulting in different control schemes among the phases. The advantage of this control is that all the phase current return to the steady state after the transition so that the next transition can be triggered very soon, which is very favorable for the application of multilevel voltage tracking. Besides, the control is independent on the load condition and not affected by the unbalance of phase current. Like the first architecture, there is also a linear stage with the same function, connected in series with the multiphase buck converter. Since both steady state and transition state of the converter are not strongly related to the switching frequency, it can be reduced for wide bandwidth envelope which is the main consideration of this architecture. The optimization of the second architecture for wider bandwidth envelope is presented including the output filter design, switching frequency and the number of phases. The filter design area is restrained by fast transition and the minimum pulse of hardware. The fast transition needs small filter but the minimum pulse of hardware limitation pushes the filter in opposite way. The converter switching frequency mainly affects the minimum pulse limitation and the power loss. With lower switching frequency, the pulse width in the transition is smaller. The number of phases related to specific application can be optimized in terms of overall efficiency. Another aspect of optimization is improving control strategy. Transition shift allows tracking some parts of envelope that are faster than the hardware can support at the price of complexity. The new transition synchronization method increases the frequency of transition, allowing the multilevel voltage to be closer to the envelope. Both control strategies push the converter to track wider bandwidth envelope than the limitation of power stage. The power loss model of envelope amplifier is detailed and validated by measurements. The power loss mechanism of buck converter has to include the transitions in real time operation, which is different from classical power loss model of synchronous buck converter. This model estimates the system efficiency and play a very important role in optimization process. Finally, the second envelope amplifier architecture is integrated with a Class F amplifier. EER system measurement proves the power saving with the proposed envelope amplifier without disrupting the linearity performance.

Signal analysis and feature generation for pattern identification of partial discharges in high-voltage equipment

This paper proposes a method for the identification of different partial discharges (PDs) sources through the analysis of a collection of PD signals acquired with a PD measurement system. This method, robust and sensitive enough to cope with noisy data and external interferences, combines the characterization of each signal from the collection, with a clustering procedure, the CLARA algorithm. Several features are proposed for the characterization of the signals, being the wavelet variances, the frequency estimated with the Prony method, and the energy, the most relevant for the performance of the clustering procedure. The result of the unsupervised classification is a set of clusters each containing those signals which are more similar to each other than to those in other clusters. The analysis of the classification results permits both the identification of different PD sources and the discrimination between original PD signals, reflections, noise and external interferences. The methods and graphical tools detailed in this paper have been coded and published as a contributed package of the R environment under a GNU/GPL license.

Supercritical Steam power cycle for Line-Focus Solar Power Plants

The supercritical Rankine power cycle offers a net improvement in plant efficiency compared with a subcritical Rankine cycle. For fossil power plants the minimum supercritical steam turbine size is about 450MW. A recent study between Sandia National Laboratories and Siemens Energy, Inc., published on March 2013, confirmed the feasibility of adapting the Siemens turbine SST-900 for supercritical steam in concentrated solar power plants, with a live steam conditions 230-260 bar and output range between 140-200 MWe. In this context, this analysis is focused on integrating a line-focus solar field with a supercritical Rankine power cycle. For this purpose two heat transfer fluids were assessed: direct steam generation and molten salt Hitec XL. To isolate solar field from high pressure supercritical water power cycle, an intermediate heat exchanger was installed between linear solar collectors and balance of plant. Due to receiver selective coating temperature limitations, turbine inlet temperature was fixed 550ºC. The design-point conditions were 550ºC and 260 bar at turbine inlet, and 165 MWe Gross power output. Plant performance was assessed at design-point in the supercritical power plant (between 43-45% net plant efficiency depending on balance of plantconfiguration), and in the subcritical plant configuration (~40% net plant efficiency). Regarding the balance of plant configuration, direct reheating was adopted as the optimum solution to avoid any intermediate heat exchanger. One direct reheating stage between high pressure turbine and intermediate pressure turbine is the common practice; however, General Electric ultrasupercritical(350 bar) fossil power plants also considered doubled-reheat applications. In this study were analyzed heat balances with single-reheat, double-reheat and even three reheating stages. In all cases were adopted the proper reheating solar field configurations to limit solar collectors pressure drops. As main conclusion, it was confirmed net plant efficiency improvements in supercritical Rankine line-focus (parabolic or linear Fresnel) solar plant configurations are mainly due to the following two reasons: higher number of feed-water preheaters (up to seven)delivering hotter water at solar field inlet, and two or even three direct reheating stages (550ºC reheating temperature) in high or intermediate pressure turbines. However, the turbine manufacturer should confirm the equipment constrains regarding reheating stages and number of steam extractions to feed-water heaters.

A swarm intelligence approach based on coupled oscillators: an application in demand side management with photovoltaic distributed generation

Esta Tesis aborda los problemas de eficiencia de las redes eléctrica desde el punto de vista del consumo. En particular, dicha eficiencia es mejorada mediante el suavizado de la curva de consumo agregado. Este objetivo de suavizado de consumo implica dos grandes mejoras en el uso de las redes eléctricas: i) a corto plazo, un mejor uso de la infraestructura existente y ii) a largo plazo, la reducción de la infraestructura necesaria para suplir las mismas necesidades energéticas. Además, esta Tesis se enfrenta a un nuevo paradigma energético, donde la presencia de generación distribuida está muy extendida en las redes eléctricas, en particular, la generación fotovoltaica (FV). Este tipo de fuente energética afecta al funcionamiento de la red, incrementando su variabilidad. Esto implica que altas tasas de penetración de electricidad de origen fotovoltaico es perjudicial para la estabilidad de la red eléctrica. Esta Tesis trata de suavizar la curva de consumo agregado considerando esta fuente energética. Por lo tanto, no sólo se mejora la eficiencia de la red eléctrica, sino que también puede ser aumentada la penetración de electricidad de origen fotovoltaico en la red. Esta propuesta conlleva grandes beneficios en los campos económicos, social y ambiental. Las acciones que influyen en el modo en que los consumidores hacen uso de la electricidad con el objetivo producir un ahorro energético o un aumento de eficiencia son llamadas Gestión de la Demanda Eléctrica (GDE). Esta Tesis propone dos algoritmos de GDE diferentes para cumplir con el objetivo de suavizado de la curva de consumo agregado. La diferencia entre ambos algoritmos de GDE reside en el marco en el cual estos tienen lugar: el marco local y el marco de red. Dependiendo de este marco de GDE, el objetivo energético y la forma en la que se alcanza este objetivo son diferentes. En el marco local, el algoritmo de GDE sólo usa información local. Este no tiene en cuenta a otros consumidores o a la curva de consumo agregado de la red eléctrica. Aunque esta afirmación pueda diferir de la definición general de GDE, esta vuelve a tomar sentido en instalaciones locales equipadas con Recursos Energéticos Distribuidos (REDs). En este caso, la GDE está enfocada en la maximización del uso de la energía local, reduciéndose la dependencia con la red. El algoritmo de GDE propuesto mejora significativamente el auto-consumo del generador FV local. Experimentos simulados y reales muestran que el auto-consumo es una importante estrategia de gestión energética, reduciendo el transporte de electricidad y alentando al usuario a controlar su comportamiento energético. Sin embargo, a pesar de todas las ventajas del aumento de auto-consumo, éstas no contribuyen al suavizado del consumo agregado. Se han estudiado los efectos de las instalaciones locales en la red eléctrica cuando el algoritmo de GDE está enfocado en el aumento del auto-consumo. Este enfoque puede tener efectos no deseados, incrementando la variabilidad en el consumo agregado en vez de reducirlo. Este efecto se produce porque el algoritmo de GDE sólo considera variables locales en el marco local. Los resultados sugieren que se requiere una coordinación entre las instalaciones. A través de esta coordinación, el consumo debe ser modificado teniendo en cuenta otros elementos de la red y buscando el suavizado del consumo agregado. En el marco de la red, el algoritmo de GDE tiene en cuenta tanto información local como de la red eléctrica. En esta Tesis se ha desarrollado un algoritmo autoorganizado para controlar el consumo de la red eléctrica de manera distribuida. El objetivo de este algoritmo es el suavizado del consumo agregado, como en las implementaciones clásicas de GDE. El enfoque distribuido significa que la GDE se realiza desde el lado de los consumidores sin seguir órdenes directas emitidas por una entidad central. Por lo tanto, esta Tesis propone una estructura de gestión paralela en lugar de una jerárquica como en las redes eléctricas clásicas. Esto implica que se requiere un mecanismo de coordinación entre instalaciones. Esta Tesis pretende minimizar la cantidad de información necesaria para esta coordinación. Para lograr este objetivo, se han utilizado dos técnicas de coordinación colectiva: osciladores acoplados e inteligencia de enjambre. La combinación de estas técnicas para llevar a cabo la coordinación de un sistema con las características de la red eléctrica es en sí mismo un enfoque novedoso. Por lo tanto, este objetivo de coordinación no es sólo una contribución en el campo de la gestión energética, sino también en el campo de los sistemas colectivos. Los resultados muestran que el algoritmo de GDE propuesto reduce la diferencia entre máximos y mínimos de la red eléctrica en proporción a la cantidad de energía controlada por el algoritmo. Por lo tanto, conforme mayor es la cantidad de energía controlada por el algoritmo, mayor es la mejora de eficiencia en la red eléctrica. Además de las ventajas resultantes del suavizado del consumo agregado, otras ventajas surgen de la solución distribuida seguida en esta Tesis. Estas ventajas se resumen en las siguientes características del algoritmo de GDE propuesto: • Robustez: en un sistema centralizado, un fallo o rotura del nodo central provoca un mal funcionamiento de todo el sistema. La gestión de una red desde un punto de vista distribuido implica que no existe un nodo de control central. Un fallo en cualquier instalación no afecta el funcionamiento global de la red. • Privacidad de datos: el uso de una topología distribuida causa de que no hay un nodo central con información sensible de todos los consumidores. Esta Tesis va más allá y el algoritmo propuesto de GDE no utiliza información específica acerca de los comportamientos de los consumidores, siendo la coordinación entre las instalaciones completamente anónimos. • Escalabilidad: el algoritmo propuesto de GDE opera con cualquier número de instalaciones. Esto implica que se permite la incorporación de nuevas instalaciones sin afectar a su funcionamiento. • Bajo coste: el algoritmo de GDE propuesto se adapta a las redes actuales sin requisitos topológicos. Además, todas las instalaciones calculan su propia gestión con un bajo requerimiento computacional. Por lo tanto, no se requiere un nodo central con un alto poder de cómputo. • Rápido despliegue: las características de escalabilidad y bajo coste de los algoritmos de GDE propuestos permiten una implementación rápida. No se requiere una planificación compleja para el despliegue de este sistema. ABSTRACT This Thesis addresses the efficiency problems of the electrical grids from the consumption point of view. In particular, such efficiency is improved by means of the aggregated consumption smoothing. This objective of consumption smoothing entails two major improvements in the use of electrical grids: i) in the short term, a better use of the existing infrastructure and ii) in long term, the reduction of the required infrastructure to supply the same energy needs. In addition, this Thesis faces a new energy paradigm, where the presence of distributed generation is widespread over the electrical grids, in particular, the Photovoltaic (PV) generation. This kind of energy source affects to the operation of the grid by increasing its variability. This implies that a high penetration rate of photovoltaic electricity is pernicious for the electrical grid stability. This Thesis seeks to smooth the aggregated consumption considering this energy source. Therefore, not only the efficiency of the electrical grid is improved, but also the penetration of photovoltaic electricity into the grid can be increased. This proposal brings great benefits in the economic, social and environmental fields. The actions that influence the way that consumers use electricity in order to achieve energy savings or higher efficiency in energy use are called Demand-Side Management (DSM). This Thesis proposes two different DSM algorithms to meet the aggregated consumption smoothing objective. The difference between both DSM algorithms lie in the framework in which they take place: the local framework and the grid framework. Depending on the DSM framework, the energy goal and the procedure to reach this goal are different. In the local framework, the DSM algorithm only uses local information. It does not take into account other consumers or the aggregated consumption of the electrical grid. Although this statement may differ from the general definition of DSM, it makes sense in local facilities equipped with Distributed Energy Resources (DERs). In this case, the DSM is focused on the maximization of the local energy use, reducing the grid dependence. The proposed DSM algorithm significantly improves the self-consumption of the local PV generator. Simulated and real experiments show that self-consumption serves as an important energy management strategy, reducing the electricity transport and encouraging the user to control his energy behavior. However, despite all the advantages of the self-consumption increase, they do not contribute to the smooth of the aggregated consumption. The effects of the local facilities on the electrical grid are studied when the DSM algorithm is focused on self-consumption maximization. This approach may have undesirable effects, increasing the variability in the aggregated consumption instead of reducing it. This effect occurs because the algorithm only considers local variables in the local framework. The results suggest that coordination between these facilities is required. Through this coordination, the consumption should be modified by taking into account other elements of the grid and seeking for an aggregated consumption smoothing. In the grid framework, the DSM algorithm takes into account both local and grid information. This Thesis develops a self-organized algorithm to manage the consumption of an electrical grid in a distributed way. The goal of this algorithm is the aggregated consumption smoothing, as the classical DSM implementations. The distributed approach means that the DSM is performed from the consumers side without following direct commands issued by a central entity. Therefore, this Thesis proposes a parallel management structure rather than a hierarchical one as in the classical electrical grids. This implies that a coordination mechanism between facilities is required. This Thesis seeks for minimizing the amount of information necessary for this coordination. To achieve this objective, two collective coordination techniques have been used: coupled oscillators and swarm intelligence. The combination of these techniques to perform the coordination of a system with the characteristics of the electric grid is itself a novel approach. Therefore, this coordination objective is not only a contribution in the energy management field, but in the collective systems too. Results show that the proposed DSM algorithm reduces the difference between the maximums and minimums of the electrical grid proportionally to the amount of energy controlled by the system. Thus, the greater the amount of energy controlled by the algorithm, the greater the improvement of the efficiency of the electrical grid. In addition to the advantages resulting from the smoothing of the aggregated consumption, other advantages arise from the distributed approach followed in this Thesis. These advantages are summarized in the following features of the proposed DSM algorithm: • Robustness: in a centralized system, a failure or breakage of the central node causes a malfunction of the whole system. The management of a grid from a distributed point of view implies that there is not a central control node. A failure in any facility does not affect the overall operation of the grid. • Data privacy: the use of a distributed topology causes that there is not a central node with sensitive information of all consumers. This Thesis goes a step further and the proposed DSM algorithm does not use specific information about the consumer behaviors, being the coordination between facilities completely anonymous. • Scalability: the proposed DSM algorithm operates with any number of facilities. This implies that it allows the incorporation of new facilities without affecting its operation. • Low cost: the proposed DSM algorithm adapts to the current grids without any topological requirements. In addition, every facility calculates its own management with low computational requirements. Thus, a central computational node with a high computational power is not required. • Quick deployment: the scalability and low cost features of the proposed DSM algorithms allow a quick deployment. A complex schedule of the deployment of this system is not required.

Revising the Emergency Management Requirements for new generation reactors

The paper presents the application of a new risk-informed methodology for the identification of the Emergency Management Requirements (EMR) to a Generation II, Large size Reactor and a Generation III+ Small Modular Reactor. The results obtained in this test case demonstrate that the actual EMR is conservative, as expected, for the GenII reactor, while the new methodology could be applied for the definition of EMRs for the new generation Nuclear Power Plants, with a possible reduction of the emergency area without loss of safety level. By adopting both probabilistic and deterministic approaches, the study addresses possible accidents and corresponding release scenarios for the two types of reactor, calculates the areas where the accidents have an impact on the population and defines the new EMR considering the health effects on the population.

Life cycle assessment of concentrated solar power (CSP) and the influence of hybridising with natural gas

Purpose Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) plants based on parabolic troughs utilize auxiliary fuels (usually natural gas) to facilitate start-up operations, avoid freezing of HTF and increase power output. This practice has a significant effect on the environmental performance of the technology. The aim of this paper is to quantify the sustainability of CSP and to analyse how this is affected by hybridisation with different natural gas (NG) inputs. Methods A complete Life Cycle (LC) inventory was gathered for a commercial wet-cooled 50 MWe CSP plant based on parabolic troughs. A sensitivity analysis was conducted to evaluate the environmental performance of the plant operating with different NG inputs (between 0 and 35% of gross electricity generation). ReCiPe Europe (H) was used as LCA methodology. CML 2 baseline 2000 World and ReCiPe Europe E were used for comparative purposes. Cumulative Energy Demands (CED) and Energy Payback Times (EPT) were also determined for each scenario. Results and discussion Operation of CSP using solar energy only produced the following environmental profile: climate change 26.6 kg CO2 eq/KWh, human toxicity 13.1 kg 1,4-DB eq/KWh, marine ecotoxicity 276 g 1,4-DB eq/KWh, natural land transformation 0.005 m2/KWh, eutrophication 10.1 g P eq/KWh, acidification 166 g SO2 eq/KWh. Most of these impacts are associated with extraction of raw materials and manufacturing of plant components. The utilization NG transformed the environmental profile of the technology, placing increasing weight on impacts related to its operation and maintenance. Significantly higher impacts were observed on categories like climate change (311 kg CO2 eq/MWh when using 35 % NG), natural land transformation, terrestrial acidification and fossil depletion. Despite its fossil nature, the use of NG had a beneficial effect on other impact categories (human and marine toxicity, freshwater eutrophication and natural land transformation) due to the higher electricity output achieved. The overall environmental performance of CSP significantly deteriorated with the use of NG (single score 3.52 pt in solar only operation compared to 36.1 pt when using 35 % NG). Other sustainability parameters like EPT and CED also increased substantially as a result of higher NG inputs. Quasilinear second-degree polynomial relationships were calculated between various environmental performance parameters and NG contributions. Conclusions Energy input from auxiliary NG determines the environmental profile of the CSP plant. Aggregated analysis shows a deleterious effect on the overall environmental performance of the technology as a result of NG utilization. This is due primarily to higher impacts on environmental categories like climate change, natural land transformation, fossil fuel depletion and terrestrial acidification. NG may be used in a more sustainable and cost-effective manner in combined cycle power plants, which achieve higher energy conversion efficiencies.

Hybridizing concentrated solar power (CSP) with biogas and biomethane as an alternative to natural gas: Analysis of environmental performance using LCA

Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) plants typically incorporate one or various auxiliary boilers operating in parallel to the solar field to facilitate start up operations, provide system stability, avoid freezing of heat transfer fluid (HTF) and increase generation capacity. The environmental performance of these plants is highly influenced by the energy input and the type of auxiliary fuel, which in most cases is natural gas (NG). Replacing the NG with biogas or biomethane (BM) in commercial CSP installations is being considered as a means to produce electricity that is fully renewable and free from fossil inputs. Despite their renewable nature, the use of these biofuels also generates environmental impacts that need to be adequately identified and quantified. This paper investigates the environmental performance of a commercial wet-cooled parabolic trough 50 MWe CSP plant in Spain operating according to two strategies: solar-only, with minimum technically viable energy non-solar contribution; and hybrid operation, where 12 % of the electricity derives from auxiliary fuels (as permitted by Spanish legislation). The analysis was based on standard Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) methodology (ISO 14040-14040). The technical viability and the environmental profile of operating the CSP plant with different auxiliary fuels was evaluated, including: NG; biogas from an adjacent plant; and BM withdrawn from the gas network. The effect of using different substrates (biowaste, sewage sludge, grass and a mix of biowaste with animal manure) for the production of the biofuels was also investigated. The results showed that NG is responsible for most of the environmental damage associated with the operation of the plant in hybrid mode. Replacing NG with biogas resulted in a significant improvement of the environmental performance of the installation, primarily due to reduced impact in the following categories: natural land transformation, depletion of fossil resources, and climate change. However, despite the renewable nature of the biofuels, other environmental categories like human toxicity, eutrophication, acidification and marine ecotoxicity scored higher when using biogas and BM.

Methods and Techniques for the Generation and Eficient Exploitation of RDB2RDF Mappings

RDB to RDF Mapping Language (R2RML) es una recomendación del W3C que permite especificar reglas para transformar bases de datos relacionales a RDF. Estos datos en RDF se pueden materializar y almacenar en un sistema gestor de tripletas RDF (normalmente conocidos con el nombre triple store), en el cual se pueden evaluar consultas SPARQL. Sin embargo, hay casos en los cuales la materialización no es adecuada o posible, por ejemplo, cuando la base de datos se actualiza frecuentemente. En estos casos, lo mejor es considerar los datos en RDF como datos virtuales, de tal manera que las consultas SPARQL anteriormente mencionadas se traduzcan a consultas SQL que se pueden evaluar sobre los sistemas gestores de bases de datos relacionales (SGBD) originales. Para esta traducción se tienen en cuenta los mapeos R2RML. La primera parte de esta tesis se centra en la traducción de consultas. Se propone una formalización de la traducción de SPARQL a SQL utilizando mapeos R2RML. Además se proponen varias técnicas de optimización para generar consultas SQL que son más eficientes cuando son evaluadas en sistemas gestores de bases de datos relacionales. Este enfoque se evalúa mediante un benchmark sintético y varios casos reales. Otra recomendación relacionada con R2RML es la conocida como Direct Mapping (DM), que establece reglas fijas para la transformación de datos relacionales a RDF. A pesar de que ambas recomendaciones se publicaron al mismo tiempo, en septiembre de 2012, todavía no se ha realizado un estudio formal sobre la relación entre ellas. Por tanto, la segunda parte de esta tesis se centra en el estudio de la relación entre R2RML y DM. Se divide este estudio en dos partes: de R2RML a DM, y de DM a R2RML. En el primer caso, se estudia un fragmento de R2RML que tiene la misma expresividad que DM. En el segundo caso, se representan las reglas de DM como mapeos R2RML, y también se añade la semántica implícita (relaciones de subclase, 1-N y M-N) que se puede encontrar codificada en la base de datos. Esta tesis muestra que es posible usar R2RML en casos reales, sin necesidad de realizar materializaciones de los datos, puesto que las consultas SQL generadas son suficientemente eficientes cuando son evaluadas en el sistema gestor de base de datos relacional. Asimismo, esta tesis profundiza en el entendimiento de la relación existente entre las dos recomendaciones del W3C, algo que no había sido estudiado con anterioridad. ABSTRACT. RDB to RDF Mapping Language (R2RML) is a W3C recommendation that allows specifying rules for transforming relational databases into RDF. This RDF data can be materialized and stored in a triple store, so that SPARQL queries can be evaluated by the triple store. However, there are several cases where materialization is not adequate or possible, for example, if the underlying relational database is updated frequently. In those cases, RDF data is better kept virtual, and hence SPARQL queries over it have to be translated into SQL queries to the underlying relational database system considering that the translation process has to take into account the specified R2RML mappings. The first part of this thesis focuses on query translation. We discuss the formalization of the translation from SPARQL to SQL queries that takes into account R2RML mappings. Furthermore, we propose several optimization techniques so that the translation procedure generates SQL queries that can be evaluated more efficiently over the underlying databases. We evaluate our approach using a synthetic benchmark and several real cases, and show positive results that we obtained. Direct Mapping (DM) is another W3C recommendation for the generation of RDF data from relational databases. While R2RML allows users to specify their own transformation rules, DM establishes fixed transformation rules. Although both recommendations were published at the same time, September 2012, there has not been any study regarding the relationship between them. The second part of this thesis focuses on the study of the relationship between R2RML and DM. We divide this study into two directions: from R2RML to DM, and from DM to R2RML. From R2RML to DM, we study a fragment of R2RML having the same expressive power than DM. From DM to R2RML, we represent DM transformation rules as R2RML mappings, and also add the implicit semantics encoded in databases, such as subclass, 1-N and N-N relationships. This thesis shows that by formalizing and optimizing R2RML-based SPARQL to SQL query translation, it is possible to use R2RML engines in real cases as the resulting SQL is efficient enough to be evaluated by the underlying relational databases. In addition to that, this thesis facilitates the understanding of bidirectional relationship between the two W3C recommendations, something that had not been studied before.

A clustering technique for partial discharge and noise sources identification in power cables by means of waveform parameters

On-line partial discharge (PD) measurements have become a common technique for assessing the insulation condition of installed high voltage (HV) insulated cables. When on-line tests are performed in noisy environments, or when more than one source of pulse-shaped signals are present in a cable system, it is difficult to perform accurate diagnoses. In these cases, an adequate selection of the non-conventional measuring technique and the implementation of effective signal processing tools are essential for a correct evaluation of the insulation degradation. Once a specific noise rejection filter is applied, many signals can be identified as potential PD pulses, therefore, a classification tool to discriminate the PD sources involved is required. This paper proposes an efficient method for the classification of PD signals and pulse-type noise interferences measured in power cables with HFCT sensors. By using a signal feature generation algorithm, representative parameters associated to the waveform of each pulse acquired are calculated so that they can be separated in different clusters. The efficiency of the clustering technique proposed is demonstrated through an example with three different PD sources and several pulse-shaped interferences measured simultaneously in a cable system with a high frequency current transformer (HFCT).

Pre-investigation of water electrolysis for flexible energy storage at large scales: the case of the Spanish power system

This report analyzes the basis of hydrogen and power integration strategies, by using water electrolysis processes as a means of flexible energy storage at large scales. It is a prospective study, where the scope is to describe the characteristics of current power systems (like the generation technologies, load curves and grid constraints), and define future scenarios of hydrogen for balancing the electrical grids, considering the efficiency, economy and easiness of operations. We focus in the "Spanish case", which is a good example for planning the transition from a power system holding large reserve capacities, high penetration of renewable energies and limited interconnections, to a more sustainable energy system being capable to optimize the volumes, the regulation modes, the utilization ratios and the impacts of the installations. Thus, we explore a novel aspect of the "hydrogen economy" which is based in the potentials of existing power systems and the properties of hydrogen as energy carrier, by considering the electricity generation and demand globally and determining the optimal size and operation of the hydrogen production processes along the country; e.g. the cost production of hydrogen becomes viable for a base-load scenario with 58 TWh/year of power surplus at 0.025 V/kWh, and large number electrolyzer plants (50 MW) running in variable mode (1-12 kA/m2)

Geothermal Electricity Generation in Colorado: Actual and Perceived Obstacles to Greater Implementation

The objective of this paper is to provide an analysis of the potential and obstacles to the development of geothermal energy resources in Colorado. Geothermal energy is the only renewable resource that can provide base-load electricity. While Colorado has significant geothermal energy potential, there are no such power plants. Layers of federal and state laws and regulations represent one barrier to further geothermal development. Transmission constraints represent another major barrier. High exploration and construction costs along with high-risk profiles for geothermal projects form another major barrier. Perceived barriers such as misunderstanding the impacts, risks, and benefits of geothermal energy hinder further development. Recommendations are provided to help overcome these obstacles.