Generation of cell polarity in plants links endocytosis, auxin distribution and cell fate decisions.

Dynamically polarized membrane proteins define different cell boundaries and have an important role in intercellular communication-a vital feature of multicellular development. Efflux carriers for the signalling molecule auxin from the PIN family are landmarks of cell polarity in plants and have a crucial involvement in auxin distribution-dependent development including embryo patterning, organogenesis and tropisms. Polar PIN localization determines the direction of intercellular auxin flow, yet the mechanisms generating PIN polarity remain unclear. Here we identify an endocytosis-dependent mechanism of PIN polarity generation and analyse its developmental implications. Real-time PIN tracking showed that after synthesis, PINs are initially delivered to the plasma membrane in a non-polar manner and their polarity is established by subsequent endocytic recycling. Interference with PIN endocytosis either by auxin or by manipulation of the Arabidopsis Rab5 GTPase pathway prevents PIN polarization. Failure of PIN polarization transiently alters asymmetric auxin distribution during embryogenesis and increases the local auxin response in apical embryo regions. This results in ectopic expression of auxin pathway-associated root-forming master regulators in embryonic leaves and promotes homeotic transformation of leaves to roots. Our results indicate a two-step mechanism for the generation of PIN polar localization and the essential role of endocytosis in this process. It also highlights the link between endocytosis-dependent polarity of individual cells and auxin distribution-dependent cell fate establishment for multicellular patterning.

Different arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi alter coexistence and resource distribution between co-occurring plants

It is often thought that the coexistence of plants and plant diversity is determined by resource heterogeneity of the abiotic environment. However, the presence and heterogeneity of biotic plant resources, such as arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), could also affect plant species coexistence. In this study, Brachypodium pinnatum and Prunella vulgaris were grown together in pots and biotic resource heterogeneity was simulated by inoculating these pots with one of three different AMF taxa, with a mixture of these three taxa, or pots remained uninoculated. The AMF acted as biotic plant resources since the biomass of plants in pots inoculated with AMF was on average 11.8 times higher than uninoculated pots. The way in which the two plant species coexisted, and the distribution of phosphorus and nitrogen between the plant species, varied strongly depending on which AMF were present. The results showed that the composition of AMF communities determines how plant species coexist and to which plant species nutrients are allocated. Biotic plant resources such as AMF should therefore be considered as one of the factors that determine how plant species coexist and how soil resources are distributed among co-occurring plant species.

Land use improves spatial predictions of mountain plant abundance but not presence-absence

Question Does a land-use variable improve spatial predictions of plant species presence-absence and abundance models at the regional scale in a mountain landscape? Location Western Swiss Alps. Methods Presence-absence generalized linear models (GLM) and abundance ordinal logistic regression models (LRM) were fitted to data on 78 mountain plant species, with topo-climatic and/or land-use variables available at a 25-m resolution. The additional contribution of land use when added to topo-climatic models was evaluated by: (1) assessing the changes in model fit and (2) predictive power, (3) partitioning the deviance respectively explained by the topo-climatic variables and the land-use variable through variation partitioning, and (5) comparing spatial projections. Results Land use significantly improved the fit of presence-absence models but not their predictive power. In contrast, land use significantly improved both the fit and predictive power of abundance models. Variation partitioning also showed that the individual contribution of land use to the deviance explained by presence-absence models was, on average, weak for both GLM and LRM (3.7% and 4.5%, respectively), but changes in spatial projections could nevertheless be important for some species. Conclusions In this mountain area and at our regional scale, land use is important for predicting abundance, but not presence-absence. The importance of adding land-use information depends on the species considered. Even without a marked effect on model fit and predictive performance, adding land use can affect spatial projections of both presence-absence and abundance models.

Functional and molecular evolutionary analysis of the "Brevix Radix" gene family in mono-and dicotyledonous plants

ABSTRACTIn contrast to animals, plants cannot move from their place of birth and, therefore, need to adapt to their particular habitat in order to survive. Thus, plant development is remarkably plastic, making plants an ideal system for the isolation of genes that account for intraspecific natural variation and possibly environmental adaptation. However, to date, this approach mostly identified null alleles and missed mutations with subtle effects. For instance, BREVIS RADIX (BRX) has been isolated as a key regulator of root growth through a naturally occurring loss-of-function allele in the Arabidopsis thaliana accession Uk-1 and is the founding member of a highly-conserved plant-specific gene family.In this work, we show that a strong selective pressure is acting on the BRX gene family and dates back before the monocot-dicot divergence. However, functional diversification is observed mainly in dicotyledon BRX family genes and is correlated with acceleration in the evolutionary rates in the N-terminal regions. Population genetic data revealed that BRX is highly conserved across Arabidopsis accessions and presents signatures of adaptation. Interestingly, a seven amino acid deletion polymorphism in BRX sequence was found in a few accessions, which seems to be responsible for their enhanced primary root growth. Nevertheless, BRX might not only be active in the root, as suggested by its expression in the shoot. Indeed, leaves and cotyledons of brx mutants are significantly smaller than wild- type. This phenotype is a direct consequence of the absence of BRX function in the shoot rather than an indirect effect of an altered root system growth. Interestingly, cotyledons of brx plants reflect the same physiological defects as the root. Moreover, phenotypes in BRX gain-of-function plants, such as epinastic leaves and increased epidermal cell size, could be associated with an increase in leaf brassinosteroid content.Collectively, these results indicate that BRX contributes to local adaptation by ubiquitously regulating plant growth, probably through the modulation of brassinosteroid biosynthesis.RÉSUMÉContrairement à la plupart des animaux, les plantes ne peuvent se mouvoir et doivent ainsi s'adapter à leur environnement pour survivre. Pour cette raison, elles représentent un système idéal pour l'identification de gènes contribuant à la variation naturelle intra- spécifique, ainsi qu'à l'adaptation. Cependant, cette approche a, jusqu'à présent, surtout permis d'isoler des allèles nuls et non des mutations conférant des effets plus subtiles. C'est le cas du gène Β REVIS RADIX (BRX), un régulateur clé de la croissance racinaire, qui a été identifié grâce à un allèle non-fonctionnel présent dans l'accession naturelle d'Arabidopsis thaliana Uk-1. BRX et ses homologues des plantes mono- et dicotylédones forment une famille très conservée et spécifique aux plantes.Dans ce travail, nous démontrons que la famille de gènes BRX est soumise à une forte pression de sélection qui remonte avant la divergence entre mono- et dicotylédones. Cependant, une diversification fonctionnelle a été observée chez les gènes des dicotylédones et corrèle avec une accélération de la vitesse d'évolution dans leur région N- terminale. Une analyse génétique de différentes accessions naturelles d'Arabidopsis a révélé que BRX est hautement conservé et présente des signatures d'adaptation. Remarquablement, un polymorphisme de délétion de sept acides aminés a été détecté dans quelques accessions et a pour conséquence une plus forte croissance de la racine primaire. Néanmoins, il semble que le rôle de BRX ne se limite pas qu'à la racine, comme indiqué par son expression dans les parties aériennes de la plante. En effet, les mutants brx présentent des cotylédons et des feuilles significativement plus petits que le type sauvage, une conséquence directe de l'absence d'activité de BRX dans ces organes. Nous avons aussi noté que les cotylédons des mutants brx, à l'instar des racines, ont une perception altérée de l'auxine et peuvent être complémentés par l'application exogène de brassinostéroïdes. De plus, dans des plantes présentant un gain de fonction BRX, les feuilles sont épinastiques et les cellules de leur épiderme plus grandes. Ces phénotypes sont accompagnés d'une augmentation de la concentration de brassinostéroïdes dans les feuilles. Conjointement, ces résultats démontrent que BRX contribue à une adaptation locale de la plante par la régulation générale de sa croissance, probablement en modulant la biosynthèse des brassinostéroïdes.

Pathways for the synthesis of polyesters in plants; cutin, suberin, and polyhydroxyalkanoates

Plants naturally produce the lipid-derived polyester cutin, which is found in the plant cuticle that is deposited at the outermost extracellular matrix of the epidermis covering nearly all aboveground tissues. Being at the interface between the cell and the external environment, cutin and the cuticle play important roles in the protection of plants from several stresses. A number of enzymes involved in the synthesis of cutin monomers have recently been identified, including several P450s and one acyl-CoA synthetase, thus representing the first steps toward the understanding of polyester formation and, potentially, polyester engineering to improve the tolerance of plants to stresses, such as drought, and for industrial applications. However, numerous processes underlying cutin synthesis, such as a controlled polymerization, still remain elusive. Suberin is a second polyester found in the extracellular matrix, most often synthesized in root tissues and during secondary growth. Similar to cutin, the function of suberin is to seal off the respective tissue to inhibit water loss and contribute to resistance to pathogen attack. Being the main constituent of cork, suberin is a plant polyester that has already been industrially exploited. Genetic engineering may be worth exploring in order to change the polyester properties for either different applications or to increase cork production in other species. Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) are attractive polyesters of 3-hydroxyacids because of their properties as bioplastics and elastomers. Although PHAs are naturally found in a wide variety of bacteria, biotechnology has aimed at producing these polymers in plants as a source of cheap and renewable biodegradable plastics. Synthesis of PHA containing various monomers has been demonstrated in the cytosol, plastids, and peroxisomes of plants. Several biochemical pathways have been modified in order to achieve this, including the isoprenoid pathway, the fatty acid biosynthetic pathway, and the fatty acid β-oxidation pathway. PHA synthesis has been demonstrated in a number of plants, including monocots and dicots, and up to 40% PHA per gram dry weight has been demonstrated in Arabidopsis thaliana. Despite some successes, production of PHA in crop plants remains a challenging project. PHA synthesis at high level in vegetative tissues, such as leaves, is associated with chlorosis and reduced growth. The challenge for the future is to succeed in synthesis of PHA copolymers with a narrow range of monomer compositions, at levels that do not compromise plant productivity. This goal will undoubtedly require a deeper understanding of plant biochemical pathways and how carbon fluxes through these pathways can be manipulated, areas where plant "omics" can bring very valuable contributions.

Rate of gene sequence evolution and species diversification in flowering plants: a re-evaluation

Barraclough and co-workers (in a paper published in 1996) observed that there was a significant positive correlation between the rate of evolution of the rbcL chloroplast gene within families of flowering plants and the number of species in those families. We tested three additional data sets of our own (based on both plastid and nuclear genes) and used methods designed specifically for the comparison of sister families (based on random speciation and extinction). We show that, over all sister groups, the correlation between the rate of gene evolution and an increased diversity is not always present. Despite tending towards a positive association, the observation of individual probabilities presents a U-shaped distribution of association (i.e. it can be either significantly positive or negative). We discuss the influence of both phylogenetic sampling and applied taxonomies on the results.

Differences in the patent management in Brazilian companies with and without plants abroad

This paper compares the procedures of local Brazilian companies (those which have plants in Brazil only) with those of international Brazilian companies (which have plants in at least two countries) regarding the patent management. Although there are a lot more variables to consider when examining the issue of patents in companies, this study presents and analyzes the results of a qualitative research on the decision to patent innovations, the choice of countries where to patent and the strategic significance of patents to the company.

A Tool for optimum design of Waste Water Treatment Plants under uncertainty

L’objectiu principal és presentar un nou prototipus d’eina per al disseny de les plantes de tractament d’aigües residuals utilitzant models mecànics dinàmics quantificant la incertesa

A metapopulation model for the introgression from genetically modified plants into their wild relatives

Most models on introgression from genetically modified (GM) plants have focused on small spatial scales, modelling gene flow from a field containing GM plants into a single adjacent population of a wild relative. Here, we present a model to study the effect of introgression from multiple plantations into the whole metapopulation of the wild relative. The most important result of the model is that even very low levels of introgression and selection can lead to a high probability that the transgene goes to fixation in the metapopulation. Furthermore, the overall frequency of the transgene in the metapopulation, after a certain number of generations of introgression, depends on the population dynamics. If there is a high rate of migration or a high rate of population turnover, the overall transgene frequency is much higher than with lower rates. However, under an island model of population structure, this increased frequency has only a very small effect on the probability of fixation of the transgene. Considering these results, studies on the potential ecological risks of introgression from GM plants should look not only at the rate of introgression and selection acting on the transgene, but also at the metapopulation dynamics of the wild relative.

Tree line shifts in the Swiss Alps: Climate change or land abandonment?

Questions: Did the forest area in the Swiss Alps increase between 1985 and 1997? Does the forest expansion near the tree line represent an invasion into abandoned grasslands (ingrowth) or a true upward shift of the local tree line? What land cover / land use classes did primarily regenerate to forest, and what forest structural types did primarily regenerate? And, what are possible drivers of forest regeneration in the tree line ecotone, climate and/or land use change? Location: Swiss Alps. Methods: Forest expansion was quantified using data from the repeated Swiss land use statistics GEOSTAT. A moving window algorithm was developed to distinguish between forest ingrowth and upward shift. To test a possible climate change influence, the resulting upward shifts were compared to a potential regional tree line. Results: A significant increase of forest cover was found between 1650 to and 2450 m. Above 1650 m, 10% of the new forest areas were identified as true upward shifts whereas 90% represented ingrowth, and we identified both land use and climate change as likely drivers. Most upward shift activities were found to occur within a band of 300 m below the potential regional tree line, indicating land use as the most likely driver. Only 4% of the upward shifts were identified to rise above the potential regional tree line, thus indicating climate change. Conclusions: Land abandonment was the most dominant driver for the establishment of new forest areas, even at the tree line ecotone. However, a small fraction of upwards shift can be attributed to the recent climate warming, a fraction that is likely to increase further if climate continues to warm, and with a longer time-span between warming and measurement of forest cover.

The cuticle: Not only a barrier for plant defence: A novel defence syndrome in plants with cuticular defects.

The cuticle is a physical barrier that prevents water loss and protects against irradiation, xenobiotics and pathogens. This classic textbook statement has recently been revisited and several observations were made showing that this dogma falls short of being universally true. Both transgenic Arabidopsis thaliana lines expressing cell wall-targeted fungal cutinase (so-called CUTE plants) or lipase as well as several A. thaliana mutants with altered cuticular structure remained free of symptoms after an inoculation with Botrytis cinerea. The alterations in cuticular structure lead to the release of fungitoxic substances and changes in gene expression that form a multifactorial defence response. Several models to explain this syndrome are discussed.

Report of Recommendations to the Iowa Department of Agriculture and Land Stewardship, June 30, 2002

State Agency Audit Report

Antimicrobial peptide genes in Bacillus strains from plant environments

The presence of the antimicrobial peptide (AMP) biosynthetic genes srfAA (surfactin), bacA (bacylisin), fenD (fengycin), bmyB (bacyllomicin), spaS (subtilin), and ituC (iturin) was examined in 184 isolates of Bacillus spp. obtained from plant environments (aerial, rhizosphere, soil) in the Mediterranean land area of Spain. Most strains had between two and four AMP genes whereas strains with five genes were seldom detected and none of the strains had six genes. The most frequent AMP gene markers were srfAA, bacA, bmyB, and fenD, and the most frequent genotypes srfAA-bacA-bmyB and srfAAbacA-bmyB-fenD. The dominance of these particular genes in Bacillus strains associated with plants reinforces the competitive role of surfactin, bacyllomicin, fengycin, and bacilysin in the fitness of strains in natural environments. The use of these AMP gene markers may assist in the selection of putative biological control agents of plant pathogens

Report of Recommendations to the Iowa Department of Agriculture and Land Stewardship, June 30, 2003

State Agency Audit Report