Low Work-Function Thermionic Emission and Orbital-Motion-Limited Ion Collection at Bare-Tether Cathodic Contact

Una amarra electrodinámica (electrodynamic tether) opera sobre principios electromagnéticos intercambiando momento con la magnetosfera planetaria e interactuando con su ionosfera. Es un subsistema pasivo fiable para desorbitar etapas de cohetes agotadas y satélites al final de su misión, mitigando el crecimiento de la basura espacial. Una amarra sin aislamiento captura electrones del plasma ambiente a lo largo de su segmento polarizado positivamente, el cual puede alcanzar varios kilómetros de longitud, mientras que emite electrones de vuelta al plasma mediante un contactor de plasma activo de baja impedancia en su extremo catódico, tal como un cátodo hueco (hollow cathode). En ausencia de un contactor catódico activo, la corriente que circula por una amarra desnuda en órbita es nula en ambos extremos de la amarra y se dice que ésta está flotando eléctricamente. Para emisión termoiónica despreciable y captura de corriente en condiciones limitadas por movimiento orbital (orbital-motion-limited, OML), el cociente entre las longitudes de los segmentos anódico y catódico es muy pequeño debido a la disparidad de masas entre iones y electrones. Tal modo de operación resulta en una corriente media y fuerza de Lorentz bajas en la amarra, la cual es poco eficiente como dispositivo para desorbitar. El electride C12A7 : e−, que podría presentar una función de trabajo (work function) tan baja como W = 0.6 eV y un comportamiento estable a temperaturas relativamente altas, ha sido propuesto como recubrimiento para amarras desnudas. La emisión termoiónica a lo largo de un segmento así recubierto y bajo el calentamiento de la operación espacial, puede ser más eficiente que la captura iónica. En el modo más simple de fuerza de frenado, podría eliminar la necesidad de un contactor catódico activo y su correspondientes requisitos de alimentación de gas y subsistema de potencia, lo que resultaría en un sistema real de amarra “sin combustible”. Con este recubrimiento de bajo W, cada segmento elemental del segmento catódico de una amarra desnuda de kilómetros de longitud emitiría corriente como si fuese parte de una sonda cilíndrica, caliente y uniformemente polarizada al potencial local de la amarra. La operación es similar a la de una sonda de Langmuir 2D tanto en los segmentos catódico como anódico. Sin embargo, en presencia de emisión, los electrones emitidos resultan en carga espacial (space charge) negativa, la cual reduce el campo eléctrico que los acelera hacia fuera, o incluso puede desacelerarlos y hacerlos volver a la sonda. Se forma una doble vainas (double sheath) estable con electrones emitidos desde la sonda e iones provenientes del plasma ambiente. La densidad de corriente termoiónica, variando a lo largo del segmento catódico, podría seguir dos leyes distintas bajo diferentes condiciones: (i) la ley de corriente limitada por la carga espacial (space-charge-limited, SCL) o (ii) la ley de Richardson-Dushman (RDS). Se presenta un estudio preliminar sobre la corriente SCL frente a una sonda emisora usando la teoría de vainas (sheath) formada por la captura iónica en condiciones OML, y la corriente electrónica SCL entre los electrodos cilíndricos según Langmuir. El modelo, que incluye efectos óhmicos y el efecto de transición de emisión SCL a emisión RDS, proporciona los perfiles de corriente y potencial a lo largo de la longitud completa de la amarra. El análisis muestra que en el modo más simple de fuerza de frenado, bajo condiciones orbitales y de amarras típicas, la emisión termoiónica proporciona un contacto catódico eficiente y resulta en una sección catódica pequeña. En el análisis anterior, tanto la transición de emisión SCL a RD como la propia ley de emisión SCL consiste en un modelo muy simplificado. Por ello, a continuación se ha estudiado con detalle la solución de vaina estacionaria de una sonda con emisión termoiónica polarizada negativamente respecto a un plasma isotrópico, no colisional y sin campo magnético. La existencia de posibles partículas atrapadas ha sido ignorada y el estudio incluye tanto un estudio semi-analítico mediante técnica asintóticas como soluciones numéricas completas del problema. Bajo las tres condiciones (i) alto potencial, (ii) R = Rmax para la validez de la captura iónica OML, y (iii) potencial monotónico, se desarrolla un análisis asintótico auto-consistente para la estructura de plasma compleja que contiene las tres especies de cargas (electrones e iones del plasma, electrones emitidos), y cuatro regiones espaciales distintas, utilizando teorías de movimiento orbital y modelos cinéticos de las especies. Aunque los electrones emitidos presentan carga espacial despreciable muy lejos de la sonda, su efecto no se puede despreciar en el análisis global de la estructura de la vaina y de dos capas finas entre la vaina y la región cuasi-neutra. El análisis proporciona las condiciones paramétricas para que la corriente sea SCL. También muestra que la emisión termoiónica aumenta el radio máximo de la sonda para operar dentro del régimen OML y que la emisión de electrones es mucho más eficiente que la captura iónica para el segmento catódico de la amarra. En el código numérico, los movimientos orbitales de las tres especies son modelados para potenciales tanto monotónico como no-monotónico, y sonda de radio R arbitrario (dentro o más allá del régimen de OML para la captura iónica). Aprovechando la existencia de dos invariante, el sistema de ecuaciones Poisson-Vlasov se escribe como una ecuación integro-diferencial, la cual se discretiza mediante un método de diferencias finitas. El sistema de ecuaciones algebraicas no lineal resultante se ha resuelto de con un método Newton-Raphson paralelizado. Los resultados, comparados satisfactoriamente con el análisis analítico, proporcionan la emisión de corriente y la estructura del plasma y del potencial electrostático. ABSTRACT An electrodynamic tether operates on electromagnetic principles and exchanges momentum through the planetary magnetosphere, by continuously interacting with the ionosphere. It is a reliable passive subsystem to deorbit spent rocket stages and satellites at its end of mission, mitigating the growth of orbital debris. A tether left bare of insulation collects electrons by its own uninsulated and positively biased segment with kilometer range, while electrons are emitted by a low-impedance active device at the cathodic end, such as a hollow cathode, to emit the full electron current. In the absence of an active cathodic device, the current flowing along an orbiting bare tether vanishes at both ends and the tether is said to be electrically floating. For negligible thermionic emission and orbital-motion-limited (OML) collection throughout the entire tether (electron/ion collection at anodic/cathodic segment, respectively), the anodic-to-cathodic length ratio is very small due to ions being much heavier, which results in low average current and Lorentz drag. The electride C12A7 : e−, which might present a possible work function as low as W = 0.6 eV and moderately high temperature stability, has been proposed as coating for floating bare tethers. Thermionic emission along a thus coated cathodic segment, under heating in space operation, can be more efficient than ion collection and, in the simplest drag mode, may eliminate the need for an active cathodic device and its corresponding gas-feed requirements and power subsystem, which would result in a truly “propellant-less” tether system. With this low-W coating, each elemental segment on the cathodic segment of a kilometers-long floating bare-tether would emit current as if it were part of a hot cylindrical probe uniformly polarized at the local tether bias, under 2D probe conditions that are also applied to the anodic-segment analysis. In the presence of emission, emitted electrons result in negative space charge, which decreases the electric field that accelerates them outwards, or even reverses it, decelerating electrons near the emitting probe. A double sheath would be established with electrons being emitted from the probe and ions coming from the ambient plasma. The thermionic current density, varying along the cathodic segment, might follow two distinct laws under different con ditions: i) space-charge-limited (SCL) emission or ii) full Richardson-Dushman (RDS) emission. A preliminary study on the SCL current in front of an emissive probe is presented using the orbital-motion-limited (OML) ion-collection sheath and Langmuir’s SCL electron current between cylindrical electrodes. A detailed calculation of current and bias profiles along the entire tether length is carried out with ohmic effects considered and the transition from SCL to full RDS emission is included. Analysis shows that in the simplest drag mode, under typical orbital and tether conditions, thermionic emission provides efficient cathodic contact and leads to a short cathodic section. In the previous analysis, both the transition between SCL and RDS emission and the current law for SCL condition have used a very simple model. To continue, considering an isotropic, unmagnetized, colissionless plasma and a stationary sheath, the probe-plasma contact is studied in detail for a negatively biased probe with thermionic emission. The possible trapped particles are ignored and this study includes both semianalytical solutions using asymptotic analysis and complete numerical solutions. Under conditions of i) high bias, ii) R = Rmax for ion OML collection validity, and iii) monotonic potential, a self-consistent asymptotic analysis is carried out for the complex plasma structure involving all three charge species (plasma electrons and ions, and emitted electrons) and four distinct spatial regions using orbital motion theories and kinetic modeling of the species. Although emitted electrons present negligible space charge far away from the probe, their effect cannot be neglected in the global analysis for the sheath structure and two thin layers in between the sheath and the quasineutral region. The parametric conditions for the current to be space-chargelimited are obtained. It is found that thermionic emission increases the range of probe radius for OML validity and is greatly more effective than ion collection for cathodic contact of tethers. In the numerical code, the orbital motions of all three species are modeled for both monotonic and non-monotonic potential, and for any probe radius R (within or beyond OML regime for ion collection). Taking advantage of two constants of motion (energy and angular momentum), the Poisson-Vlasov equation is described by an integro differential equation, which is discretized using finite difference method. The non-linear algebraic equations are solved using a parallel implementation of the Newton-Raphson method. The results, which show good agreement with the analytical results, provide the results for thermionic current, the sheath structure, and the electrostatic potential.

Color uniformity in spotligths - visual perception and system design

La iluminación con diodos emisores de luz (LED) está reemplazando cada vez en mayor medida a las fuentes de luz tradicionales. La iluminación LED ofrece ventajas en eficiencia, consumo de energía, diseño, tamaño y calidad de la luz. Durante más de 50 años, los investigadores han estado trabajando en mejoras LED. Su principal relevancia para la iluminación está aumentando rápidamente. Esta tesis se centra en un campo de aplicación importante, como son los focos. Se utilizan para enfocar la luz en áreas definidas, en objetos sobresalientes en condiciones profesionales. Esta iluminación de alto rendimiento requiere una calidad de luz definida, que incluya temperaturas ajustables de color correlacionadas (CCT), de alto índice de reproducción cromática (CRI), altas eficiencias, y colores vivos y brillantes. En el paquete LED varios chips de diferentes colores (rojo, azul, fósforo convertido) se combinan para cumplir con la distribución de energía espectral con alto CRI. Para colimar la luz en los puntos concretos deseados con un ángulo de emisión determinado, se utilizan blancos sintonizables y diversos colores de luz y ópticas secundarias. La combinación de una fuente LED de varios colores con elementos ópticos puede causar falta de homogeneidad cromática en la distribución espacial y angular de la luz, que debe resolverse en el diseño óptico. Sin embargo, no hay necesidad de uniformidad perfecta en el punto de luz debido al umbral en la percepción visual del ojo humano. Por lo tanto, se requiere una descripción matemática del nivel de uniformidad del color con respecto a la percepción visual. Esta tesis está organizada en siete capítulos. Después de un capítulo inicial que presenta la motivación que ha guiado la investigación de esta tesis, en el capítulo 2 se presentan los fundamentos científicos de la uniformidad del color en luces concentradas, como son: el espacio de color aplicado CIELAB, la percepción visual del color, los fundamentos de diseño de focos respecto a los motores de luz y ópticas no formadoras de imágenes, y los últimos avances en la evaluación de la uniformidad del color en el campo de los focos. El capítulo 3 desarrolla diferentes métodos para la descripción matemática de la distribución espacial del color en un área definida, como son la diferencia de color máxima, la desviación media del color, el gradiente de la distribución espacial de color, así como la suavidad radial y axial. Cada función se refiere a los diferentes factores que influyen en la visión, los cuales necesitan un tratamiento distinto que el de los datos que se tendrán en cuenta, además de funciones de ponderación que pre- y post-procesan los datos simulados o medidos para la reducción del ruido, la luminancia de corte, la aplicación de la ponderación de luminancia, la función de sensibilidad de contraste, y la función de distribución acumulativa. En el capítulo 4, se obtiene la función de mérito Usl para la estimación de la uniformidad del color percibida en focos. Se basó en los resultados de dos conjuntos de experimentos con factor humano realizados para evaluar la percepción visual de los sujetos de los patrones de focos típicos. El primer experimento con factor humano dio lugar al orden de importancia percibida de los focos. El orden de rango percibido se utilizó para correlacionar las descripciones matemáticas de las funciones básicas y la función ponderada sobre la distribución espacial del color, que condujo a la función Usl. El segundo experimento con factor humano probó la percepción de los focos bajo condiciones ambientales diversas, con el objetivo de proporcionar una escala absoluta para Usl, para poder así sustituir la opinión subjetiva personal de los individuos por una función de mérito estandarizada. La validación de la función Usl se presenta en relación con el alcance de la aplicación y condiciones, así como las limitaciones y restricciones que se realizan en el capítulo 5. Se compararon los datos medidos y simulados de varios sistemas ópticos. Se discuten los campos de aplicación , así como validaciones y restricciones de la función. El capítulo 6 presenta el diseño del sistema de focos y su optimización. Una evaluación muestra el análisis de sistemas basados en el reflector y la lente TIR. Los sistemas ópticos simulados se comparan en la uniformidad del color Usl, sensibilidad a las sombras coloreadas, eficiencia e intensidad luminosa máxima. Se ha comprobado que no hay un sistema único que obtenga los mejores resultados en todas las categorías, y que una excelente uniformidad de color se pudo alcanzar por la conjunción de dos sistemas diferentes. Finalmente, el capítulo 7 presenta el resumen de esta tesis y la perspectiva para investigar otros aspectos. ABSTRACT Illumination with light-emitting diodes (LED) is more and more replacing traditional light sources. They provide advantages in efficiency, energy consumption, design, size and light quality. For more than 50 years, researchers have been working on LED improvements. Their main relevance for illumination is rapidly increasing. This thesis is focused on one important field of application which are spotlights. They are used to focus light on defined areas, outstanding objects in professional conditions. This high performance illumination required a defined light quality including tunable correlated color temperatures (CCT), high color rendering index (CRI), high efficiencies and bright, vivid colors. Several differently colored chips (red, blue, phosphor converted) in the LED package are combined to meet spectral power distribution with high CRI, tunable white and several light colors and secondary optics are used to collimate the light into the desired narrow spots with defined angle of emission. The combination of multi-color LED source and optical elements may cause chromatic inhomogeneities in spatial and angular light distribution which needs to solved at the optical design. However, there is no need for perfect uniformity in the spot light due to threshold in visual perception of human eye. Therefore, a mathematical description of color uniformity level with regard to visual perception is required. This thesis is organized seven seven chapters. After an initial one presenting the motivation that has guided the research of this thesis, Chapter 2 introduces the scientific basics of color uniformity in spot lights including: the applied color space CIELAB, the visual color perception, the spotlight design fundamentals with regards to light engines and nonimaging optics, and the state of the art for the evaluation of color uniformity in the far field of spotlights. Chapter 3 develops different methods for mathematical description of spatial color distribution in a defined area, which are the maximum color difference, the average color deviation, the gradient of spatial color distribution as well as the radial and axial smoothness. Each function refers to different visual influencing factors, and they need different handling of data be taken into account, along with weighting functions which pre- and post-process the simulated or measured data for noise reduction, luminance cutoff, the implementation of luminance weighting, contrast sensitivity function, and cumulative distribution function. In chapter 4, the merit function Usl for the estimation of the perceived color uniformity in spotlights is derived. It was based on the results of two sets of human factor experiments performed to evaluate the visual perception of typical spotlight patterns by subjects. The first human factor experiment resulted in the perceived rank order of the spotlights. The perceived rank order was used to correlate the mathematical descriptions of basic functions and weighted function concerning the spatial color distribution, which lead to the Usl function. The second human factor experiment tested the perception of spotlights under varied environmental conditions, with to objective to provide an absolute scale for Usl, so the subjective personal opinion of individuals could be replaced by a standardized merit function. The validation of the Usl function is presented concerning the application range and conditions as well as limitations and restrictions in carried out in chapter 5. Measured and simulated data of various optical several systems were compared. Fields of applications are discussed as well as validations and restrictions of the function. Chapter 6 presents spotlight system design and their optimization. An evaluation shows the analysis of reflector-based and TIR lens systems. The simulated optical systems are compared in color uniformity Usl , sensitivity to colored shadows, efficiency, and peak luminous intensity. It has been found that no single system which performed best in all categories, and that excellent color uniformity could be reached by two different system assemblies. Finally, chapter 7 summarizes the conclusions of the present thesis and an outlook for further investigation topics.

Design of a new neutron delivery system for high flux source

La construcción en la actualidad de nuevas fuentes para el uso de haces de neutrones así como los programas de renovación en curso en algunas de las instalaciones experimentales existentes han evidenciado la necesidad urgente de desarrollar la tecnología empleada para la construcción de guías de neutrones con objeto de hacerlas mas eficientes y duraderas. Esto viene motivado por el hecho de que varias instalaciones de experimentación con haces de neutrones han reportado un número de incidentes mecánicos con tales guías, lo que hace urgente el progresar en nuestro conocimiento de los susbtratos vítreos sobre los cuales se depositan los espejos que permiten la reflexión total de los neutrones y como aquellos se degradan con la radiación. La presente tesis se inscribe en un acuerdo de colaboración establecido entre el Institut Max von Laue - Paul Langevin (ILL) de Grenoble y el Consorcio ESS-Bilbao con objeto de mejorar el rendimiento y sostenibilidad de los sistemas futuros de guiado de neutrones. El caso de la Fuente Europea de Espalación en construcción en Lund sirve como ejemplo ya que se contempla la instalación de guías de neutrones de más de 100 metros en algunos de los instrumentos. Por otro lado, instalaciones como el ILL prevén también dentro del programa Endurance de rejuvenecimiento la reconstrucción de varias líneas de transporte de haz. Para el presente estudio se seleccionaron cuatro tipos de vidrios borosilicatados que fueron el Borofloat, N-ZK7, N-BK7 y SBSL7. Los tres primeros son bien conocidos por los especialistas en instrumentación neutrónica ya que se han empleado en la construcción de varias instalaciones mientras que el último es un candidato potencial en la fabricación de substratos para espejos neutrónicos en un futuro. Los cuatro vidrios tiene un contenido en óxido de Boro muy similar, approximadamente un 10 mol.%. Tal hecho que obedece a las regulaciones para la fabricación de estos dispositivos hace que tales substratos operen como protección radiológica absorbiendo los neutrones transmitidos a través del espejo de neutrones. Como contrapartida a tal beneficio, la reacción de captura 10B(n,_)7Li puede degradar el substrato vítreo debido a los 2.5 MeV de energía cinética depositados por la partícula _ y los núcleos en retroceso y de hecho la fragilidad de tales vidrios bajo radiación ha sido atribuida desde hace ya tiempo a los efectos de esta reacción. La metodología empleada en esta tesis se ha centrado en el estudio de la estructura de estos vidrios borosilicatados y como esta se comporta bajo condiciones de radiación. Los materiales en cuestión presentan estructuras que dependen de su composición química y en particular del ratio entre formadores y modificadores de la red iono-covalente. Para ello se han empleado un conjunto de técnicas de caracterización tanto macro- como microscópicas tales como estudios de dureza, TEM, Raman, SANS etc. que se han empleado también para determinar el comportamiento de estos materiales bajo radiación. En particular, algunas propiedades macroscópicas relacionadas con la resistencia de estos vidrios como elementos estructurales de las guías de neutrones han sido estudiadas así como también los cambios en la estructura vítrea consecuencia de la radiación. Para este propósito se ha diseñado y fabricado por el ILL un aparato para irradiación de muestras con neutrones térmicos en el reactor del ILL que permite controlar la temperatura alcanzada por la muestra a menos de 100 °C. Tal equipo en comparación con otros ya existences permite en cuestión de dias acumular las dosis recibidas por una guía en operación a lo largo de varios años. El uso conjunto de varias técnicas de caracterización ha llevado a revelar que los vidrios aqui estudiados son significativamente diferentes en cuanto a su estructura y que tales diferencias afectan a sus propiedades macroscópicas asi como a su comportamiento bajo radiación. Tal resultado ha sido sorprendente ya que, como se ha mencionado antes, algunos de estos vidrios eran bien conocidos por los fabricantes de guías de neutrones y hasta el momento eran considerados prácticamente similares debido a su contenido comparable en óxido de Boro. Sin embargo, los materiales N-BK7 and S-BSL7 muetran gran homogeneidad a todas las escalas de longitud, y más específicamente, a escalas nanométricas las subredes de Sílice y óxido de Boro se mezclan dando logar a estructuras locales que recuerdan a la del cristal de Reedmergnerita. Por el contrario, N-ZK7 y Borofloat muestran dominios separados ricos en Sílice o Boro. Como era de esperar, las importantes diferencias arriba mencionadas se traducen en comportamientos dispares de estos materiales bajo un haz de neutrones térmicos. Los resultados muestran que el N-BK7 y el S-BSL7 son los más estables bajo radiación, lo que macroscópicamente hace que estos materiales muestren un comportamiento similar expandiéndose lentamente en función de la dosis recibida. Por el contario, los otros dos materiales muestran un comportamiento mucho más reactivo, que hace que inicialmente se compacten con la dosis recibida lo que hace que las redes de Silicio y Boro se mezclen resultando en un incremento en densidad hasta alcanzar un valor límite, seguido por un proceso de expansión lenta que resulta comparable al observado para N-BK7 y SBSL7. Estos resultados nos han permitido explicar el origen de las notorias diferencias observadas en cuanto a las dosis límite a partir de las cuales estos materiales desarrollan procesos de fragmentación en superficie. ABSTRACT The building of new experimental neutron beam facilities as well as the renewal programmes under development at some of the already existing installations have pinpointed the urgent need to develop the neutron guide technology in order to make such neutron transport devices more efficient and durable. In fact, a number of mechanical failures of neutron guides have been reported by several research centres. It is therefore important to understand the behaviour of the glass substrates on top of which the neutron optics mirrors are deposited and how these materials degrade under radiation conditions. The case of the European Spallation Source (ESS) at present under construction at Lund is a good example. It previews the deployment of neutron guides having more than 100 metres of length for most of the instruments. Also, the future renovation programme of the ILL, called Endurance, foresees the refurbishment of several beam lines. This Ph.D. thesis was the result of a collaboration agreement between the ILL and ESS-Bilbao aiming to improve the performance and sustainability of future neutron delivery systems. Four different industrially produced alkali-borosilicate glasses were selected for this study: Borofloat, N-ZK7, N-BK7 and SBSL7. The first three are well known within the neutron instrumentation community as they have already been used in several installations whereas the last one is at present considered as a candidate for making future mirror substrates. All four glasses have a comparable content of boron oxide of about 10 mol.%. The presence of such a strong neutron absorption element is in fact a mandatory component for the manufacturing of neutron guides because it provides a radiological shielding for the environment. This benefit is however somewhat counterbalanced since the resulting 10B(n,_)7Li reactions degrade the glass due to the deposited energy of 2.5 MeV by the _ particle and the recoil nuclei. In fact, the brittleness of some of these materials has been ascribed to this reaction. The methodology employed by this study consisted in understanding the general structure of borosilicates and how they behave under irradiation. Such materials have a microscopic structure strongly dependent upon their chemical content and particularly on the ratios between network formers and modifiers. The materials have been characterized by a suite of macroscopic and structural techniques such as hardness, TEM, Raman, SANS, etc. and their behaviour under irradiation was analysed. Some macroscopic properties related to their resistance when used as guide structural elements were monitored. Also, changes in the vitreous structure due to radiation were observed by means of several experimental tools. For such a purpose, an irradiation apparatus has been designed and manufactured to enable irradiation with thermal neutrons within the ILL reactor while keeping the samples below 100 °C. The main advantage of this equipment if compared to others previously available was that it allowed to reach in just some days an equivalent neutron dose to that accumulated by guides after several years of use. The concurrent use of complementary characterization techniques lead to the discovery that the studied glasses were deeply different in terms of their glass network. This had a strong impact on their macroscopic properties and their behaviour under irradiation. This result was a surprise since, as stated above, some of these materials were well known by the neutron guide manufacturers, and were considered to be almost equivalent because of their similar boron oxide content. The N-BK7 and S-BSL7 materials appear to be fairly homogeneous glasses at different length scales. More specifically, at nanometre scales, silicon and boron oxide units seem to mix and generate larger structures somewhat resembling crystalline Reedmergnerite. In contrast, N-ZK7 and Borofloat are characterized by either silicon or boron rich domains. As one could expect, these drastic differences lead to their behaviour under thermal neutron flux. The results show that N-BK7 and S-BSL7 are structurally the most stable under radiation. Macroscopically, such stability results in the fact that these two materials show very slow swelling as a function or radiation dose. In contrast, the two other glasses are much more reactive. The whole glass structure compacts upon radiation. Specifically, the silica network, and the boron units tend to blend leading to an increase in density up to some saturation, followed by a very slow expansion which comes to be of the same order than that shown by N-BK7 and S-BSL7. Such findings allowed us to explain the drastic differences in the radiation limits for macroscopic surface splintering for these materials when they are used in neutron guides.

Operational short term health impact assessment of air pollution modelling system over Europe

The last decade, scientific studies have indicated an association between air pollution to which people are exposed and wide range of adverse health outcomes. We have developed a tool which is based on a model (MM5-CMAQ) running over Europe with 50 km spatial resolution, based on EMEP annual emissions, to produce a short-term forecast of the impact on health. In order to estimate the mortality change (forecasted for the next 24 hours) we have chosen a log-linear (Poisson) regression form to estimate the concentration-response function. The parameters involved in the C-R function have been estimated based on epidemiological studies, which have been published. Finally, we have derived the relationship between concentration change and mortality change from the C-R function which is the final health impact function.

Experience-dependent corticofugal adjustment of midbrain frequency map in bat auditory system

Recent studies of corticofugal modulation of auditory information processing indicate that cortical neurons mediate both a highly focused positive feedback to subcortical neurons “matched” in tuning to a particular acoustic parameter and a widespread lateral inhibition to “unmatched” subcortical neurons. This cortical function for the adjustment and improvement of subcortical information processing is called egocentric selection. Egocentric selection enhances the neural representation of frequently occurring signals in the central auditory system. For our present studies performed with the big brown bat (Eptesicus fuscus), we hypothesized that egocentric selection adjusts the frequency map of the inferior colliculus (IC) according to auditory experience based on associative learning. To test this hypothesis, we delivered acoustic stimuli paired with electric leg stimulation to the bat, because such paired stimuli allowed the animal to learn that the acoustic stimulus was behaviorally important and to make behavioral and neural adjustments based on the acquired importance of the acoustic stimulus. We found that acoustic stimulation alone evokes a change in the frequency map of the IC; that this change in the IC becomes greater when the acoustic stimulation is made behaviorally relevant by pairing it with electrical stimulation; that the collicular change is mediated by the corticofugal system; and that the IC itself can sustain the change evoked by the corticofugal system for some time. Our data support the hypothesis.

Immunotargeting of liposomes to activated vascular endothelial cells: A strategy for site-selective delivery in the cardiovascular system

Endothelial-selective delivery of therapeutic agents, such as drugs or genes, would provide a useful tool for modifying vascular function in various disease states. A potential molecular target for such delivery is E-selectin, an endothelial-specific cell surface molecule expressed at sites of activation in vivo and inducible in cultured human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC) by treatment with cytokines such as recombinant human interleukin 1β (IL-1β). Liposomes of various types (classical, sterically stabilized, cationic, pH-sensitive), each conjugated with mAb H18/7, a murine monoclonal antibody that recognizes the extracellular domain of E-selectin, bound selectively and specifically to IL-1β-activated HUVEC at levels up to 275-fold higher than to unactivated HUVEC. E-selectin-targeted immunoliposomes appeared in acidic, perinuclear vesicles 2–4 hr after binding to the cell surface, consistent with internalization via the endosome/lysosome pathway. Activated HUVEC incubated with E-selectin-targeted immunoliposomes, loaded with the cytotoxic agent doxorubicin, exhibited significantly decreased cell survival, whereas unactivated HUVEC were unaffected by such treatment. These results demonstrate the feasibility of exploiting cell surface activation markers for the endothelial-selective delivery of biologically active agents via immunoliposomes. Application of this targeting approach in vivo may lead to novel therapeutic strategies in the treatment of cardiovascular disease.

Neuronal death in the central nervous system demonstrates a non-fibrin substrate for plasmin

Mice deficient for plasminogen exhibit a variety of pathologies, all of which examined to date are reversed when the animals are also made fibrin(ogen) deficient. These results suggested that the predominant, and perhaps exclusive, physiological role of plasminogen is clearance of fibrin. Plasminogen-deficient mice also display resistance to excitotoxin-induced neurodegeneration, in contrast with wild-type mice, which are sensitive. Based on the genetic interaction between plasminogen and fibrinogen, we investigated whether resistance to neuronal cell death in the plasminogen-deficient mice is dependent on fibrin(ogen). Unexpectedly, mice lacking both plasminogen and fibrinogen are resistant to neurodegeneration to levels comparable to plasminogen-deficient mice. Therefore, plasmin acts on substrates other than fibrin during experimental neuronal degeneration, and may function similarly in other pathological settings in the central nervous system.

Developmental regulation of spine motility in the mammalian central nervous system

The function of dendritic spines, postsynaptic sites of excitatory input in the mammalian central nervous system (CNS), is still not well understood. Although changes in spine morphology may mediate synaptic plasticity, the extent of basal spine motility and its regulation and function remains controversial. We investigated spine motility in three principal neurons of the mouse CNS: cerebellar Purkinje cells, and cortical and hippocampal pyramidal neurons. Motility was assayed with time-lapse imaging by using two-photon microscopy of green fluorescent protein-labeled neurons in acute and cultured slices. In all three cell types, dendritic protrusions (filopodia and spines) were highly dynamic, exhibiting a diversity of morphological rearrangements over short (<1-min) time courses. The incidence of spine motility declined during postnatal maturation, but dynamic changes were still apparent in many spines in late-postnatal neurons. Although blockade or induction of neuronal activity did not affect spine motility, disruption of actin polymerization did. We hypothesize that this basal motility of dendritic protrusions is intrinsic to the neuron and underlies the heightened plasticity found in developing CNS.

Functional breakdown of the lipid bilayer of the myelin membrane in central and peripheral nervous system by disrupted galactocerebroside synthesis

The lipid bilayer of the myelin membrane of the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS) contains the oligodendrocyte- and Schwann cell-specific glycosphingolipids galactocerebrosides (GalC) and GalC-derived sulfatides (sGalC). We have generated a UDP-galactose ceramide galactosyltransferase (CGT) null mutant mouse (cgt−/−) with CNS and PNS myelin completely depleted of GalC and derived sGalC. Oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells are unable to restore the structure and function of these galactosphingolipids to maintain the insulator function of the membrane bilayer. The velocity of nerve conduction of homozygous cgt−/− mice is reduced to that of unmyelinated axons. This indicates a severely altered ion permeability of the lipid bilayer. GalC and sGalC are essential for the unperturbed lipid bilayer of the myelin membrane of CNS and PNS. The severe dysmyelinosis leads to death of the cgt−/− mouse at the end of the myelination period.

Analysis of a peptide hormone–receptor interaction in the yeast two-hybrid system

Interaction between a peptide hormone and extracellular domains of its receptor is a crucial step for initiation of hormone action. We have developed a modification of the yeast two-hybrid system to study this interaction and have used it to characterize the interaction of insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) with its receptor by using GAL4 transcriptional regulation with a β-galactosidase assay as readout. In this system, IGF-1 and proIGF-1 bound to the cysteine-rich domain, extracellular domain, or entire IGF-1 proreceptor. This interaction was specific. Thus, proinsulin showed no significant interaction with the IGF-1 receptor, while a chimeric proinsulin containing the C-peptide of IGF-1 had an intermediate interaction, consistent with its affinity for the IGF-1 receptor. Over 2000 IGF-1 mutants were generated by PCR and screened for interaction with the color assay. About 40% showed a strong interaction, 20% showed an intermediate interaction, and 40% give little or no signal. Of 50 mutants that were sequenced, several (Leu-5 → His, Glu-9 → Val, Arg-37 → Gly, and Met-59 → Leu) appeared to enhance receptor association, others resulted in weaker receptor interaction (Tyr-31 → Phe and Ile-43 → Phe), and two gave no detectable signal (Leu-14 → Arg and Glu-46 → Ala). Using PCR-based mutagenesis with proinsulin, we also identified a gain of function mutant (proinsulin Leu-17 → Pro) that allowed for a strong IGF-1–receptor interaction. These data demonstrate that the specificity of the interaction between a hormone and its receptor can be characterized with high efficiency in the two-hybrid system and that novel hormone analogues may be found by this method.

Functional analyses of troponin T mutations that cause hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: Insights into disease pathogenesis and troponin function

Mutations in a number of cardiac sarcomeric protein genes cause hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM). Previous findings indicate that HCM-causing mutations associated with a truncated cardiac troponin T (TnT) and missense mutations in the β-myosin heavy chain share abnormalities in common, acting as dominant negative alleles that impair contractile performance. In contrast, Lin et al. [Lin, D., Bobkova, A., Homsher, E. & Tobacman, L. S. (1996) J. Clin. Invest. 97, 2842–2848] characterized a TnT point mutation (Ile79Asn) and concluded that it might lead to hypercontractility and, thus, potentially a different mechanism for HCM pathogenesis. In this study, three HCM-causing cardiac TnT mutations (Ile79Asn, Arg92Gln, and ΔGlu160) were studied in a myotube expression system. Functional studies of wild-type and mutant transfected myotubes revealed that all three mutants decreased the calcium sensitivity of force production and that the two missense mutations (Ile79Asn and Arg92Gln) increased the unloaded shortening velocity nearly 2-fold. The data demonstrate that TnT can alter the rate of myosin cross-bridge detachment, and thus the troponin complex plays a greater role in modulating muscle contractile performance than was recognized previously. Furthermore, these data suggest that these TnT mutations may cause disease via an increased energetic load on the heart. This would represent a second paradigm for HCM pathogenesis.

Cooperative functions of the reaper and head involution defective genes in the programmed cell death of Drosophila central nervous system midline cells

In Drosophila, the chromosomal region 75C1–2 contains at least three genes, reaper (rpr), head involution defective (hid), and grim, that have important functions in the activation of programmed cell death. To better understand how cells are killed by these genes, we have utilized a well defined set of embryonic central nervous system midline cells that normally exhibit a specific pattern of glial cell death. In this study we show that both rpr and hid are expressed in dying midline cells and that the normal pattern of midline cell death requires the function of multiple genes in the 75C1–2 interval. We also utilized the P[UAS]/P[Gal4] system to target expression of rpr and hid to midline cells. Targeted expression of rpr or hid alone was not sufficient to induce ectopic midline cell death. However, expression of both rpr and hid together rapidly induced ectopic midline cell death that resulted in axon scaffold defects characteristic of mutants with abnormal midline cell development. Midline-targeted expression of the baculovirus p35 protein, a caspase inhibitor, blocked both normal and ectopic rpr- and hid-induced cell death. Taken together, our results suggest that rpr and hid are expressed together and cooperate to induce programmed cell death during development of the central nervous system midline.

Conserved biological function between Pax-2 and Pax-5 in midbrain and cerebellum development: Evidence from targeted mutations

The development of two major subdivisions of the vertebrate nervous system, the midbrain and the cerebellum, is controlled by signals emanating from a constriction in the neural primordium called the midbrain/hindbrain organizer (Joyner, A. L. (1996) Trends Genet. 12, 15–201). The closely related transcription factors Pax-2 and Pax-5 exhibit an overlapping expression pattern very early in the developing midbrain/hindbrain junction. Experiments carried out in fish (Krauss, S., Maden, M., Holder, N. & Wilson, S. W. (1992) Nature (London) 360, 87–89) with neutralizing antibodies against Pax-b, the orthologue of Pax-2 in mouse, placed this gene family in an regulatory cascade necessary for the development of the midbrain and the cerebellum. The targeted mutation of Pax-5 has been reported to have only slight effects in the development of structures derived from the isthmic constriction, whereas the Pax-2 null mutant mice show a background-dependent phenotype with varying penetrance. To test a possible redundant function between Pax-2 and Pax-5 we analyzed the brain phenotypes of mice expressing different dosages of both genes. Our results demonstrate a conserved biological function of both proteins in midbrain/hindbrain regionalization. Additionally, we show that one allele of Pax-2, but not Pax-5, is necessary and sufficient for midbrain and cerebellum development in C57BL/6 mice.

A Cell-free System to Study Regulation of Focal Adhesions and of the Connected Actin Cytoskeleton

Assembly and modulation of focal adhesions during dynamic adhesive processes are poorly understood. We describe here the use of ventral plasma membranes from adherent fibroblasts to explore mechanisms regulating integrin distribution and function in a system that preserves the integration of these receptors into the plasma membrane. We find that partial disruption of the cellular organization responsible for the maintenance of organized adhesive sites allows modulation of integrin distribution by divalent cations. High Ca2+ concentrations induce quasi-reversible diffusion of β1 integrins out of focal adhesions, whereas low Ca2+ concentrations induce irreversible recruitment of β1 receptors along extracellular matrix fibrils, as shown by immunofluorescence and electron microscopy. Both effects are independent from the presence of actin stress fibers in this system. Experiments with cells expressing truncated β1 receptors show that the cytoplasmic portion of β1 is required for low Ca2+-induced recruitment of the receptors to matrix fibrils. Analysis with function-modulating antibodies indicates that divalent cation-mediated receptor distribution within the membrane correlates with changes in the functional state of the receptors. Moreover, reconstitution experiments show that purified α-actinin colocalizes and redistributes with β1 receptors on ventral plasma membranes depleted of actin, implicating binding of α-actinin to the receptors. Finally, we found that recruitment of exogenous actin is specifically restricted to focal adhesions under conditions in which new actin polymerization is inhibited. Our data show that the described system can be exploited to investigate the mechanisms of integrin function in an experimental setup that permits receptor redistribution. The possibility to uncouple, under cell-free conditions, events involved in focal adhesion and actin cytoskeleton assembly should facilitate the comprehension of the underlying molecular mechanisms.

The Yeast GRD20 Gene Is Required for Protein Sorting in the trans-Golgi Network/Endosomal System and for Polarization of the Actin Cytoskeleton

The proper localization of resident membrane proteins to the trans-Golgi network (TGN) involves mechanisms for both TGN retention and retrieval from post-TGN compartments. In this study we report identification of a new gene, GRD20, involved in protein sorting in the TGN/endosomal system of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. A strain carrying a transposon insertion allele of GRD20 exhibited rapid vacuolar degradation of the resident TGN endoprotease Kex2p and aberrantly secreted ∼50% of the soluble vacuolar hydrolase carboxypeptidase Y. The Kex2p mislocalization and carboxypeptidase Y missorting phenotypes were exhibited rapidly after loss of Grd20p function in grd20 temperature-sensitive mutant strains, indicating that Grd20p plays a direct role in these processes. Surprisingly, little if any vacuolar degradation was observed for the TGN membrane proteins A-ALP and Vps10p, underscoring a difference in trafficking patterns for these proteins compared with that of Kex2p. A grd20 null mutant strain exhibited extremely slow growth and a defect in polarization of the actin cytoskeleton, and these two phenotypes were invariably linked in a collection of randomly mutagenized grd20 alleles. GRD20 encodes a hydrophilic protein that partially associates with the TGN. The discovery of GRD20 suggests a link between the cytoskeleton and function of the yeast TGN.