Application of space-charge electrostatic precipitator for collection of oil mist from pyrolysis gases

A novel electrostatic precipitator CAROLA® is developed for collection of fine oil mists. It operates on the principle of unipolar particle charging in the corona discharge and particle precipitation under the field of space charge. The pilot precipitator was tested at different gas temperatures. It is shown that the increase of gas temperature changes the characteristics of the corona discharge and particle size distribution, especially for droplets sub-micron droplets. The CAROLA® precipitator was used for collection of oil mist from pyrolysis gases at the HALOCLEAN® plant. The flow rate of biomass in the HALOCLEAN® plant was 15-30 kg/h. The particle mass concentration in the raw gas was over 100 g/Nm. The operation voltage of the precipitator was 10-12 kV and corona current up to 0,1 mA. Single stage electrostatic precipitator ensured mass collection efficiency 97-99,5% for pyrolysis oil mist.

Impact of Miscanthus x giganteus senescence times on fast pyrolysis bio-oil quality

In this study the impact of senescence and harvest time in Miscanthus on the quality of fast pyrolysis liquid (bio-oil) was investigated. Bio-oil was produced using a 1kgh fast pyrolysis reactor to obtain a quantity of bio-oil comparable with existing industrial reactors. Bio-oil stability was measured using viscosity, water content, pH and heating value changes under specific conditions. Plant developmental characteristics were significantly different (P=0.05) between all harvest points. The stage of crop senescence was correlated with nutrient remobilisation (N, P, K; r=0.9043, r=0.9920, r=0.9977 respectively) and affected bio-oil quality. Harvest time and senescence impacted bio-oil quality and stability. For fast pyrolysis processing of Miscanthus, the harvest time of Miscanthus can be extended to cover a wider harvest window whilst still maintaining bio-oil quality but this may impact mineral depletion in, and long term sustainability of, the crop unless these minerals can be recycled. © 2012 Elsevier Ltd.

Effects of engine cooling water temperature on performance and exhaust emission characteristics of a multi-cylinder CI engine operated with Jatropha-Butanol blend

Renewable alternatives such as biofuels and optimisation of the engine operating parameters can enhance engine performance and reduce emissions. The temperature of the engine coolant is known to have significant influence on engine performance and emissions. Whereas much existing literature describes the effects of coolant temperature in engines using fossil derived fuels, very few studies have investigated these effects when biofuel is used as an alternative fuel. Jatropha oil is a non-edible biofuel which can substitute fossil diesel for compression ignition (CI) engine use. However, due to the high viscosity of Jatropha oil, technique such as transesterification, preheating the oil, mixing with other fuel is recommended for improved combustion and reduced emissions. In this study, Jatropha oil was blended separately with ethanol and butanol, at ratios of 80:20 and 70:30. The fuel properties of all four blends were measured and compared with diesel and jatropha oil. It was found that the 80% jatropha oil + 20% butanol blend was the most suitable alternative, as its properties were closest to that of diesel. A 2 cylinder Yanmar engine was used; the cooling water temperature was varied between 50°C and 95°C. In general, it was found that when the temperature of the cooling water was increased, the combustion process enhanced for both diesel and Jatropha-Butanol blend. The CO2 emissions for both diesel and biofuel blend were observed to increase with temperature. As a result CO, O2 and lambda values were observed to decrease when cooling water temperature increased. When the engine was operated using diesel, NOX emissions correlated in an opposite manner to smoke opacity; however, when the biofuel blend was used, NOX emissions and smoke opacity correlated in an identical manner. The brake thermal efficiencies were found to increase slightly as the temperature was increased. In contrast, for all fuels, the volumetric efficiency was observed to decrease as the coolant temperature was increased. Brake specific fuel consumption was observed to decrease as the temperature was increased and was higher on average when the biofuel was used, in comparison to diesel. The study concludes that the effects of engine coolant temperature on engine performance and emission characteristics differ between biofuel blend and fossil diesel operation. The coolant temperature needs to be optimised depending on the type of biofuel for optimum engine performance and reduced emissions.

Catalytic intermediate pyrolysis of Brunei rice husk for bio-oil production

Rice husks from Brunei were subjected via intermediate pyrolysis for bio-oil production. Two main objectives were set out for this study. The application of intermediate pyrolysis on Brunei rice husk for the production of bio-oil is the main objective of this experiment. Characterisation of the rice husks was inclusive as a pre-requisite step to assess the suitability as feedstock for production of liquid fuels. Following on from the characterisation results, a temperature of 450°C was established as the optimum temperature for the production of bio-oil. A homogenous bio-oil was obtained from the pyrolysis of dry rice husk, and the physicochemical properties and chemical compositions were analysed. The second objective is the introduction of catalysts into the pyrolysis process which aims to improve the bio-oil quality, and maximise the desired liquid bio-oil properties. The incorporation of the catalysts was done via a fixed tube reactor into the pyrolysis system. Ceramic monoliths were used as the catalyst support, with montmorillonite clay as a binder to attach the catalysts onto the catalyst support. ZSM-5, Al-MCM-41, Al-MSU-F and Brunei rice husk ash (BRHA) together with its combination were adopted as catalysts. Proposed criterions dictated the selection of the best catalysts, subsequently leading to the optimisation process for bio-oil production. ZSM-5/Al-MCM-41 proved the most desirable catalyst, which increases the production of aromatics and phenols, decreased the organic acids and improved the physicochemical properties such as the pH, viscosity, density and H:C molar ratios. Variation in the ratio and positioning of both catalysts were the significant key factor for the catalyst optimisation study.

Thermochemical characterisation of various biomass feedstock and bio-oil generated by fast pyrolysis

The projected decline in fossil fuel availability, environmental concerns, and security of supply attract increased interest in renewable energy derived from biomass. Fast pyrolysis is a possible thermochemical conversion route for the production of bio-oil, with promising advantages. The purpose of the experiments reported in this thesis was to extend our understanding of the fast pyrolysis process for straw, perennial grasses and hardwoods, and the implications of selective pyrolysis, crop harvest and storage on the thermal decomposition products. To this end, characterisation and laboratory-scale fast pyrolysis were conducted on the available feedstocks, and their products were compared. The variation in light and medium volatile decomposition products was investigated at different pyrolysis temperatures and heating rates, and a comparison of fast and slow pyrolysis products was conducted. Feedstocks from different harvests, storage durations and locations were characterised and compared in terms of their fuel and chemical properties. A range of analytical (e.g. Py-GC-MS and TGA) and processing equipment (0.3 kg/h and 1.0 kg/h fast pyrolysis reactors and 0.15 kg slow pyrolysis reactor) was used. Findings show that the high bio-oil and char heating value, and low water content of willow short rotation coppice (SRC) make this crop attractive for fast pyrolysis processing compared to the other investigated feedstocks in this project. From the analytical sequential investigation of willow SRC, it was found that the volatile product distribution can be tailored to achieve a better final product, by a variation of the heating rate and temperature. Time of harvest was most influential on the fuel properties of miscanthus; overall the late harvest produced the best fuel properties (high HHV, low moisture content, high volatile content, low ash content), and storage of the feedstock reduced the moisture and acid content.

The application of calcined natural dolomitic rock as a solid base catalyst in triglyceride transesterification for biodiesel synthesis

Natural dolomitic rock has been investigated in the transesterification of C and C triglycerides and olive oil with a view to determining its viability as a solid base catalyst for use in biodiesel synthesis. XRD reveals that the dolomitic rock comprised 77% dolomite and 23% magnesian calcite. The generation of basic sites requires calcination at 900 °C, which increases the surface area and transforms the mineral into MgO nanocrystallites dispersed over CaO particles. Calcined dolomitic rock exhibits high activity towards the liquid phase transesterification of glyceryl tributyrate and trioctanoate, and even olive oil, with methanol for biodiesel production. © The Royal Society of Chemistry 2008.

Thermal stability of sewage sludge pyrolysis oil

The stability of the oil phase obtained from intermediate pyrolysis process was used for this investigation. The analysis was based on standard methods of determining kinematic viscosity, gas - chromatography / mass - spectrometry for compositional changes, FT-IR for functional group, Karl Fischer titration for water content and bomb calorimeter for higher heaating values. The methods were used to determine changes that occurred during ageing. The temperatures used for thermal testing were 60 °C and 80 °C for the periods of 72 and 168 h. Methanol and biodiesel were used as solvents for the analysis. The bio-oil samples contained 10 % methanol, 10 % Biodiesel, 20 % Biodiesel and unstabilised pyrolysis oil. The tests carried out at 80 °C showed drastic changes compared to those at 60 °C. The bio-oil samples containing 20 % biodiesel proved to be more stable than those with 10 % methanol. The unstabilised pyrolysis oil showed the greatest changes in viscosity, composition change and highest increase in water content. The measurement of kinematic viscosity and gas chromatograph mass spectrometry were found to be more reliable for predicting the ageing process.

Változik-e a kőolaj szerepe a világgazdaságban és Magyarországon? = The (un)changing role of oil in global economy and Hungary

A kőolaj (és a földgáz), a XX. században felfutott fosszilis energiahordozók történetileg a szenet váltották fel. Ma egyértelműen meghatározzák a világ energiafelhasználását. Miután fosszilisak, rövid távon nem újratermelhetőek, ezért felhasználásuk történetét végigkísérte a feltárt és feltárható készletek mennyiségének állandó újrabecslése is, és folyamatosan jelen van a végességükre vonatkozó apokaliptikus kép, amit az elmúlt 40 év rendkívül hektikus, sokszor kiugróan magas árai is alátámasztanak. Cikkünkben reális képet szeretnénk adni az olaj mennyiségi és árváltozásairól, és ezek lehetséges közgazdasági, társadalmi hatásairól. Miután a rendelkezésre álló hely kevés, csak a legfontosabb összefüggéseket emeljük ki, bizonyos adatokat is inkább illusztrációszerűen közlünk. Célunk nem mélyelemzés, hanem egy átfogó helyzetkép. Vázoljuk a kőolajjal kapcsolatos fontosabb történeti mozzanatokat, a kőolaj felhasználásának irányait Európában és Magyarországon, valamint a készletekkel kapcsolatos összefoglaló gondolatokat. _______________ The volatile oil prices of the past 40 years have always foreshadowed an apocalyptic vision of the exhaustion of global reserves. The paper reviews the important historical moments of the usage of oil, with a special focus on Europe and Hungary. It also details issues related to oil reserves. The main conclusions of the paper are the following: (1) fears of exhausting oil reserves have been rebutted several times; (2) high oil prices can be barriers to the development of the transportation sector, even if innovation is happening in the background; (3) the distribution of oil reserves carries huge political risks; and (4) it is unclear what will take the place of oil as the main source of energy.

The Current State of Argentina's Oil Industry

An oil wealthy country, Argentina has repeatedly tried and failed to capitalize on its potential. The unfortunate energy policies of subsequent Argentinean government and a lack of investment capital have been two of the main reasons that have significantly limited the production of export oil in the recent past. Yet, with recent discoveries and changes to the country’s hydrocarbon laws, there may be a new dawn for Argentina’s oil industry. Since 1999 when Argentina’s oil production peaked at approximately 800,000 barrels per day, there has been a 24 percent decrease in its oil output. The country’s oil reserves have also been in steady decline. Yet, the recently enacted reforms by Argentina’s government to incentivize foreign investment in the oil industry seem to be working, allowing investors to negotiate the terms of exploration directly with local governments. As a result, foreign investment is increasing, as well as new willingness to finance exploration of untapped reserves. Also, the discovery of shale oil in Argentina may provide the potential to become a key exporter in the region. Nonetheless, there are challenges that need to be overcome and it may be years before the various oil projects underway become profitable. The success of current oil projects, coupled with the potential of shale oil, new discoveries and the sustainability of the current energy policy reforms will likely determine if Argentina is finally able to fulfill its potential and exert itself as an oil exporter country in Latin America.

A study of methods used to analyze total oil and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in produced water: steps towards the validation of molecularly imprinted polymers for use in marine environmetns

Produced water is a by-product of offshore oil and gas production, and is released in large volumes when platforms are actively processing crude oil. Some pollutants are not typically removed by conventional oil/water separation methods and are discharged with produced water. Oil and grease can be found dispersed in produced water in the form of tiny droplets, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are commonly found dissolved in produced water. Both can have acute and chronic toxic effects in marine environments even at low exposure levels. The analysis of the dissolved and dispersed phases are a priority, but effort is required to meet the necessary detection limits. There are several methods for the analysis of produced water for dispersed oil and dissolved PAHs, all of which have advantages and disadvantages. In this work, EPA Method 1664 and APHA Method 5520 C for the determination of oil and grease will be examined and compared. For the detection of PAHs, EPA Method 525 and PAH MIPs will be compared, and results evaluated. APHA Method 5520 C Partition-Infrared Method is a liquid-liquid extraction procedure with IR determination of oil and grease. For analysis on spiked samples of artificial seawater, extraction efficiency ranged from 85 – 97%. Linearity was achieved in the range of 5 – 500 mg/L. This is a single-wavelength method and is unsuitable for quantification of aromatics and other compounds that lack sp³-hybridized carbon atoms. EPA Method 1664 is the liquid-liquid extraction of oil and grease from water samples followed by gravimetric determination. When distilled water spiked with reference oil was extracted by this procedure, extraction efficiency ranged from 28.4 – 86.2%, and %RSD ranged from 7.68 – 38.0%. EPA Method 525 uses solid phase extraction with analysis by GC-MS, and was performed on distilled water and water from St. John’s Harbour, all spiked with naphthalene, fluorene, phenanthrene, and pyrene. The limits of detection in harbour water were 0.144, 3.82, 0.119, and 0.153 g/L respectively. Linearity was obtained in the range of 0.5-10 g/L, and %RSD ranged from 0.36% (fluorene) to 46% (pyrene). Molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) are sorbent materials made selective by polymerizing functional monomers and crosslinkers in the presence of a template molecule, usually the analytes of interest or related compounds. They can adsorb and concentrate PAHs from aqueous environments and are combined with methods of analysis including GC-MS, LC-UV-Vis, and desorption electrospray ionization (DESI)- MS. This work examines MIP-based methods as well as those methods previously mentioned which are currently used by the oil and gas industry and government environmental agencies. MIPs are shown to give results consistent with other methods, and are a low-cost alternative improving ease, throughput, and sensitivity. PAH MIPs were used to determine naphthalene spiked into ASTM artificial seawater, as well as produced water from an offshore oil and gas operation. Linearity was achieved in the range studied (0.5 – 5 mg/L) for both matrices, with R² = 0.936 for seawater and R² = 0.819 for produced water. The %RSD for seawater ranged from 6.58 – 50.5% and for produced water, from 8.19 – 79.6%.

Environmental Impacts of the Deep-Water Oil and Gas Industry : A Review to Guide Management Strategies

The authors would like to thank the leadership of the Deep Ocean Stewardship Initiative (DOSI), including Lisa Levin, Maria Baker, and Kristina Gjerde, for their support in developing this review. This work evolved from a meeting of the DOSI Oil and Gas working group supported by the J.M. Kaplan Fund, and associated with the Deep-Sea Biology Symposium in Aveiro, Portugal in September 2015. The members of the Oil and Gas working group that contributed to our discussions at that meeting or through the listserve are acknowledged for their contributions to this work. We would also like to thank the three reviewers and the editor who provided valuable comments and insight into the work presented here. DJ and AD were supported by funding from the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the MERCES (Marine Ecosystem Restoration in Changing European Seas) project, grant agreement No 689518. AB was supported by CNPq grants 301412/2013-8 and 200504/2015-0. LH acknowledges funding provided by a Natural Environment Research Council grant (NE/L008181/1). This output reflects only the authors' views and the funders cannot be held responsible for any use that may be made of the information contained therein.

Tab. 1+2+3: Selected principal soil properties in the oil exploitation region of KomiArcticOil (Usinsk) in the Russian tundra

Oil polluted and not oil polluted soils (crude oil hydrocarbons contents: 20-92500 mg/kg dry soil mass) under natural grass and forest vegetation and in a bog in the Russian tundra were compared in their principal soil ecological parameters, the oil content and the microbial indicators. CFE biomass-C, dehydrogenase and arylsulfatase activity were enhanced with the occurrence of crude oil. Using these parameters for purposes of controlling remediation and recultivation success it is not possible to distinguish bctween promotion of microbial activity by oil carbon or soil organic carbon (SOC). For this reason we think that these parameters are not appropriate to indicate a soil damage by an oil impact. In contrast the metabolie quotient (qC02), calculated as the ratio between soil basal respiration and the SIR biomass-C was adequate to indicate a high crude oil contamination in soil. Also, the ß-glucosidase activity (parameter ß-GL/SOC) was correlated negatively with oil in soil. The indication of a soil damage by using the stress parameter qCO, or the specific enzyme activities (activity/SOC) minimizes the promotion effect of the recent SOC content on microbial parameters. Both biomass methods (SIR, CFE) have technical problems in application for crude oil-contaminated and subarctic soils. CFE does not reflect the low C_mic level of the cold tundra soils. We recommend to test every method for its suitability before any data collection in series as well as application for cold soils and the application of ecophysiological ratios as R_mic/C_mic, C_mic/SOC or enzymatic activity/SOC instead of absolute data.

Production of Polyhydroxyalkanoates by Pseudomonas mendocina using vegetable oils and their characterisation

Synthesis of Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) by Pseudomonas mendocina, using different vegetable oils such as, coconut oil, groundnut oil, corn oil and olive oil, as the sole carbon source was investigated for the first time. The PHA yield obtained was compared with that obtained during the production of PHAs using sodium octanoate as the sole carbon source. The fermentation profiles at shaken flask and bioreactor levels revealed that vegetable oils supported the growth of Pseudomonas mendocina and PHA accumulation in this organism. Moreover, when vegetable oil (coconut oil) was used as the sole carbon source, fermentation profiles showed better growth and polymer production as compared to conditions when sodium octanoate was used as the carbon source. In addition, comparison of PHA accumulation at shaken flask and fermenter level confirmed the higher PHA yield at shaken flask level production. The highest cell mass found using sodium octanoate was 1.8 g/L, whereas cell mass as high as 5.1 g/L was observed when coconut oil was used as the feedstock at flask level production. Moreover, the maximum PHA yield of 60.5% dry cell weight (dcw) was achieved at shaken flask level using coconut oil as compared to the PHA yield of 35.1% dcw obtained using sodium octanoate as the sole carbon source. Characterisations of the chemical, physical, mechanical, surface and biocompatibility properties of the polymers produced have been carried out by performing different analyses as described in the second chapter of this study. Chemical analysis using GC and FTIR investigations showed medium chain length (MCL) PHA production in all conditions. GC-MS analysis revealed a unique terpolymer production, containing 3-hydroxyoctanoic acid, 3-hydroxydecanoic acid and 3-hydroxydodecanoic acid when coconut oil, groundnut oil, olive oil, and corn oil were used as the carbon source. Whereas production of the homopolymer containing 3-hydroxyoctanoic acid was observed when sodium octanoate was used as the carbon source. MCL-PHAs produced in this study using sodium octanoate, coconut oil, and olive oil exhibited melting transitions, indicating that each of the PHA was crystalline or semi-crystalline polymer. In contrast, the thermal properties of PHAs produced from groundnut and corn oils showed no melting transition, indicating that they were completely amorphous or semi-crystalline, which was also confirmed by the X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) results obtained in this study. Mechanical analysis of the polymers produced showed higher stiffness of the polymer produced from coconut oil than the polymer from sodium octanoate. Surface characterisation of the polymers using Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) revealed a rough surface topography and surface contact angle measurement revealed their hydrophobic nature. Moreover, to investigate the potential applicability of the produced polymers as the scaffold materials for dental pulp regeneration, multipotent human Mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs) were cultured onto the polymer films. Results indicated that these polymers are not cytotoxic towards the hMSCs and could support their attachment and proliferation. Highest cell growth was observed on the polymer samples produced from corn oil, followed by the polymer produced using coconut oil. In conclusion, this work established, for the first time, that vegetable oils are a good economical source of carbon for production of MCL-PHA copolymers effectively by Pseudomonas mendocina. Moreover, biocompatibility studies suggest that the produced polymers may have potential for dental tissue engineering application.

Effects of IFRS adoption on the financial statements of Nigerian listed entities: the case of oil and gas companies

On 28 July 2010, the Nigerian Federal Executive Council approved January 1, 2012 as the effective date for the convergence of Nigerian Statement of Accounting Standards (SAS) or Nigerian GAAP (NG-GAAP) with International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS). By this pronouncement, all publicly listed companies and significant public interest entities in Nigeria were statutorily required to issue IFRS based financial statements for the year ended December, 2012. This study investigates the impact of the adoption of IFRS on the financial statements of Nigerian listed Oil and Gas entities using six years of data which covers three years before and three years after IFRS adoption in Nigeria and other African countries. First, the study evaluates the impact of IFRS adoption on the Exploration and Evaluation (E&E) expenditures of listed Oil and Gas companies. Second, it examines the impact of IFRS adoption on the provision for decommissioning of Oil and Gas installations and environmental rehabilitation expenditures. Third, the study analyses the impact of the adoption of IFRS on the average daily Crude Oil production cost per Barrel. Fourth, it examines the extent to which the adoption and implementation of IFRS affects the Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) of listed Oil and Gas companies. The study further explores the impact of IFRS adoption on the contractual relationships between Nigerian Government and Oil and Gas companies in terms of Joint Ventures (JVs) and Production Sharing Contracts (PSCs) as it relates to taxes, royalties, bonuses and Profit Oil Split. A Paired Samples t-test, Wilcoxon Signed Rank test and Gray’s (Gray, 1980) Index of Conservatism analyses were conducted simultaneously where the accounting numbers, financial ratios and industry specific performance measures of GAAP and IFRS were computed and analysed and the significance of the differences of the mean, median and Conservatism Index values were compared before and after IFRS adoption. Questionnaires were then administered to the key stakeholders in the adoption and implementation of IFRS and the responses collated and analysed. The results of the analyses reveal that most of the accounting numbers, financial ratios and industry specific performance measures examined changed significantly as a result of the transition from GAAP to IFRS. The E&E expenditures and the mean cost of Crude Oil production per barrel of Oil and Gas companies increased significantly. The GAAP values of inventories, GPM, ROA, Equity and TA were also significantly different from the IFRS values. However, the differences in the provision for decommissioning expenditures were not statistically significant. Gray’s (Gray, 1980) Conservatism Index shows that Oil and Gas companies were more conservative under GAAP when compared to the IFRS regime. The Questionnaire analyses reveal that IFRS based financial statements are of higher quality, easier to prepare and present to management and easier to compare among competitors across the Oil and Gas sector but slightly more difficult to audit compared to GAAP based financial statements. To my knowledge, this is the first empirical research to investigate the impact of IFRS adoption on the financial statements of listed Oil and Gas companies. The study will therefore make an enormous contribution to academic literature and body of knowledge and void the existing knowledge gap regarding the impact and implications of IFRS adoption on the financial statements of Oil and Gas companies.

Chemistry of potassium halides and their role in corrosion in biomass and waste firing

Compared to the use of traditional fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas), combustion of biomass and waste fuels has several environmental and economic advantages for heat and power generation. However, biomass and waste fuels might contain halogens (Cl, Br, F), alkali metals (Na, K) and heavy metals (Zn, Pb), which may cause harmful emissions and corrosion problems. Hightemperature corrosion occurs typically on furnace waterwalls and superheaters. The corrosion of the boiler tube materials limits the increase of thermal efficiency of steam boilers and leads to costly shutdowns and repairs. In recent years, some concerns have been raised about halogen (Cl, Br, and F)-related hightemperature corrosion in biomass- and waste-fired boilers. Chlorine-related high-temperature corrosion has been studied extensively. The presence of alkali chlorides in the deposits is believed to play a major role in the corrosion observed in biomass and waste fired boilers. However, there is much less information found in literature on the corrosion effect of bromine and fluorine. According to the literature, bromine is only assumed to play a role similar to chlorine; the role of fluorine is even less understood. In this work, a series of bubbling fluidized bed (BFB) bench-scale tests were carried out to characterize the formation and sulfation behaviors of KCl and KBr in BFB combustion conditions. Furthermore, a series of laboratory tests were carried out to investigate the hightemperature corrosion behaviors of three different superheater steels (10CrMo9-10, AISI 347 and Sanicro 28) exposed to potassium halides in ambient air and wet air (containing 30% H2O). The influence of H2O and O2 on the high-temperature corrosion of steels both with and without a salt (KCl) in three gas atmospheres (2% H2O-30% O2-N2, 2% H2O-2% O2-N2 and 30% H2O-2% O2-N2) was also studied. From the bench-scale BFB combustion tests, it was found that HBr has a clearly higher affinity for the available K forming KBr than HCl forming KCl. The tests also indicated that KCl has a higher tendency for sulfation than KBr. From the laboratory corrosion tests in ambient air (also called “dry air” in Paper III and Paper IV), it was found that at relatively low temperatures (≤ 550 °C) the corrosivity of KBr and KF are similar to KCl. At 600 °C, KF showed much stronger corrosivity than KBr and KCl, especially for 10CrMo9-10 and AISI 347. When exposed to KBr or KF, 10CrMo9-10 was durable at least up to 450 °C, while AISI 347 and Sanicro 28 were durable at least up to 550 °C. From the laboratory corrosion tests in wet air (30% H2O), no obvious effect of water vapor was detected at 450 °C. At 550 °C, the influence of water vapor became significant in some cases, but the trend was not consistent. At 550 °C, after exposure with KBr, 10CrMo9-10 suffered from extreme corrosion; after exposure with KF and KCl, the corrosion was less severe, but still high. At 550 °C, local deep pitting corrosion occurred on AISI 347 and Sanicro 28 after exposure with KF. Some formation of K2CrO4 was observed in the oxide layer. At 550 °C, AISI 347 and Sanicro 28 suffered from low corrosion (oxide layer thickness of < 10 μm) after exposure with KBr and KCl. No formation of K2CrO4 was observed. Internal oxidation occurred in the cases of AISI 347 with KBr and KCl. From the laboratory corrosion tests in three different gas atmospheres (2% H2O-30% O2-N2, 2% H2O-2% O2-N2 and 30% H2O-2% O2-N2), it was found that in tests with no salt, no corrosion occurred on AISI 347 and Sanicro 28 up to 600 °C in both the “O2-rich” (2% H2O-30% O2-N2) and “H2O-rich” (30% H2O-2% O2-N2) gas atmospheres; only 10CrMo9-10 showed increased corrosion with increasing temperature. For 10CrMo9-10 in the “O2-rich” atmosphere, the presence of KCl significantly increased the corrosion compared to the “no salt” cases. For 10CrMo9-10 in the “H2O-rich” atmosphere, the presence or absence of KCl did not show any big influence on corrosion. The formation of K2CrO4 was observed only in the case with the “O2-rich” atmosphere. Considering both the results from the BFB tests and the laboratory corrosion tests, if fuels containing Br were to be combusted, the corrosion damage of superheaters would be expected to be higher than if the fuels contain only Cl. Information generated from these studies can be used to help the boiler manufacturers in selecting materials for the most demanding combustion systems.