Neocolonialism and international law, with specific reference to customary counterterrorism obligations and the principle of self-defence

Has international law ever, and, if it has not, can it ever, truly freed itself from the strictures of neocolonialism and the drive by a privileged elite to dominate the world scene? This article begins by inquiring into the nature of neocolonialism and, in so doing, pays particular attention to the writings of former Ghanaian President Kwame Nkrumah. It then proceeds to determine how neocolonialist designs surface in international law today by briefly looking at two aspects of international law in particular, namely customary international law, with specific reference to the counterterrorism context, and the principle of self-defence. In the final analysis, this article argues for a necessary and eternal scepticism of international law and the agendas of its privileged gatekeepers. Like classic State power, it opens itself to, and often operates as, neocolonial overreach, and to quote Nkrumah, “[t]he cajolement, the wheedlings, the seductions and the Trojan horses of neo-colonialism must be stoutly resisted, for neo-colonialism is a latter-day harpy, a monster which entices its victims with sweet music.”

Digestion, rumen fermentation and circulating concentrations of insulin, growth hormone and IGF-1 in steers given maize silages harvested at three stages of maturity

Advancing maturity of forage maize is associated with increases in the proportion of dry matter (DM) and starch and decreases in the proportions of structural carbohydrates in the ensiled crop. Three maize silages (286 (low, L), 329 (medium, M) and 379 (high, H) g DM per kg fresh weight) plus a concentrate formulated to give isonitrogenous intakes were offered to Holstein-Friesian steers fitted with a cannula in the dorsal sac of the rumen and a 'T' piece cannula in the proximal duodenum in an experiment with a cross-over design that allowed four collection periods. Nutrient flow to the duodenum was estimated using chromium-EDTA. Steers consumed approximately 0(.)6 kg DM per day less of diet L compared with the other two diets (P=0(.)026), resulting in less DM being digested (P=0(.)005) but digestibility did not differ between diets. Similar results were obtained for organic matter. There were no differences between diets in the intake or digestibility of neutral-detergent fibre. Intake, duodenal flow and faecal output of starch were greater for steers offered diets M and H compared with those given diet L (P < 0(.)05). In all diets rumen digestion contributed to over 90% of total digestion of starch, although rumen digestibility declined significantly with advancing maize maturity (P=0(.)002). Molar proportions of acetic acid were higher in diet H (P < 0(.)05) whilst proportions of propionic acid and n-butyric acid were higher in diets M and L. There were no significant differences between diets in mean rumen pH or ammonia concentrations. Mean circulating concentrations of insulin were higher (P=0(.)009) in cattle given diets L and M compared with diet H. There were no differences between diets in the mean circulating concentration of growth hormone, or the frequency, amplitude and duration of growth hormone pulses, or the mean circulating concentrations of IGF-1. Changes in forage composition that accompany advancing maize maturity affect overall silage digestion and circulating concentrations of insulin.

Cost-benefit analysis model of badger (Meles meles) culling to reduce cattle herd tuberculosis breakdowns in Britain, with particular reference to badger perturbation

Bovine tuberculosis (TB)is an important economic disease. Badgers (Meles meles) are the wildlife source implicated in many cattle outbreaks of TB in Britain, and extensive badger control is a controversial option to reduce the disease. A badger and cattle population model was developed, simulating TB epidemiology; badger ecology, including postcull social perturbation; and TB-related farm management. An economic cost-benefit module was integrated into the model to assess whether badger control offers economic benefits. Model results strongly indicate that although, if perturbation were restricted, extensive badger culling could reduce rates in cattle, overall an economic loss would be more likely than a benefit. Perturbation of the badger population was a key factor determining success or failure of control. The model highlighted some important knowledge gaps regarding both the spatial and temporal characteristics of perturbation that warrant further research.

Effects of schistosoma mansoni worms and eggs on circulating cholesterol and liver lipids in mice

It has previously been shown that experimental infections of the parasitic trematode Schistosoma mansoni, the adult worms of which reside in the blood stream of the mammalian host, significantly reduced atherogenesis in apolipoprotein E gene knockout (apoE(-/-)) mice. These effects occurred in tandem with a lowering of serum total cholesterol levels in both apoE(-/-) and random-bred laboratory mice and a beneficial increase in the proportion of HDL to LDL cholesterol. To better understand how the parasitic infections induce these effects we have here investigated the involvement of adult worms and their eggs on lipids in the host. Our results indicate that the serum cholesterol-lowering effect is mediated by factors released from S. mansoni eggs, while the presence of adult worms seemed to have had little or no effect. It was also observed that high levels of lipids, particularly triacylglycerols and cholesteryl esters, present in the uninfected livers of both random-bred and apoE(-/-) mice fed a high-fat diet were not present in livers of the schistosome-infected mice. (C) 2009 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

The severity of malarial anaemia in Plasmodium chabaudi infections of BALB/c mice is determined independently of the number of circulating parasites

Background: Severe malarial anaemia is a major complication of malaria infection and is multifactorial resulting from loss of circulating red blood cells (RBCs) from parasite replication, as well as immune-mediated mechanisms. An understanding of the causes of severe malarial anaemia is necessary to develop and implement new therapeutic strategies to tackle this syndrome of malaria infection. Methods: Using analysis of variance, this work investigated whether parasite-destruction of RBCs always accounts for the severity of malarial anaemia during infections of the rodent malaria model Plasmodium chabaudi in mice of a BALB/c background. Differences in anaemia between two different clones of P. chabaudi were also examined. Results: Circulating parasite numbers were not correlated with the severity of anaemia in either BALB/c mice or under more severe conditions of anaemia in BALB/c RAG2 deficient mice (lacking T and B cells). Mice infected with P. chabaudi clone CB suffered more severe anaemia than mice infected with clone AS, but this was not correlated with the number of parasites in the circulation. Instead, the peak percentage of parasitized RBCs was higher in CB-infected animals than in AS-infected animals, and was correlated with the severity of anaemia, suggesting that the availability of uninfected RBCs was impaired in CB-infected animals. Conclusion: This work shows that parasite numbers are a more relevant measure of parasite levels in P. chabaudi infection than % parasitaemia, a measure that does not take anaemia into account. The lack of correlation between parasite numbers and the drop in circulating RBCs in this experimental model of malaria support a role for the host response in the impairment or destruction of uninfected RBC in P. chabaudi infections, and thus development of acute anaemia in this malaria model.

Allelic size standards and reference genotypes to unify international cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) microsatellite data

Standardisation of microsatellite allele profiles between laboratories is of fundamental importance to the transferability of genetic fingerprint data and the identification of clonal individuals held at multiple sites. Here we describe two methods of standardisation applied to the microsatellite fingerprinting of 429 Theobroma cacao L. trees representing 345 accessions held in the worlds largest Cocoa Intermediate Quarantine facility: the use of a partial allelic ladder through the production of 46 cloned and sequenced allelic standards (AJ748464 to AJ48509), and the use of standard genotypes selected to display a diverse allelic range. Until now a lack of accurate and transferable identification information has impeded efforts to genetically improve the cocoa crop. To address this need, a global initiative to fingerprint all international cocoa germplasm collections using a common set of 15 microsatellite markers is in progress. Data reported here have been deposited with the International Cocoa Germplasm Database and form the basis of a searchable resource for clonal identification. To our knowledge, this is the first quarantine facility to be completely genotyped using microsatellite markers for the purpose of quality control and clonal identification. Implications of the results for retrospective tracking of labelling errors are briefly explored.

Expression of target and reference genes in Daphnia magna exposed to ibuprofen

Background: Transcriptomic techniques are now being applied in ecotoxicology and toxicology to measure the impact of stressors and develop understanding of mechanisms of toxicity. Microarray technology in particular offers the potential to measure thousands of gene responses simultaneously. However, it is important that microarrays responses should be validated, at least initially, using real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (QPCR). The accurate measurement of target gene expression requires normalisation to an invariant internal control e. g., total RNA or reference genes. Reference genes are preferable, as they control for variation inherent in the cDNA synthesis and PCR. However, reference gene expression can vary between tissues and experimental conditions, which makes it crucial to validate them prior to application. Results: We evaluated 10 candidate reference genes for QPCR in Daphnia magna following a 24 h exposure to the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) ibuprofen (IB) at 0, 20, 40 and 80 mg IB l(-1). Six of the 10 candidates appeared suitable for use as reference genes. As a robust approach, we used a combination normalisation factor (NF), calculated using the geNorm application, based on the geometric mean of three selected reference genes: glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, ubiquitin conjugating enzyme and actin. The effects of normalisation are illustrated using as target gene leukotriene B4 12-hydroxydehydrogenase (Ltb4dh), which was upregulated following 24 h exposure to 63-81 mg IB l(-1). Conclusions: As anticipated, use of the NF clarified the response of Ltb4dh in daphnids exposed to sublethal levels of ibuprofen. Our findings emphasise the importance in toxicogenomics of finding and applying invariant internal QPCR control(s) relevant to the study conditions.

Effect of circulating forms of soy isoflavones on the oxidation of low density lipoprotein

Soy isoflavones are thought to have a cardioprotective effect that is partly mediated by an inhibitory influence on the oxidation of low density lipoprotein (LDL). However, the aglycone forms investigated in many previous studies do not circulate in appreciable quantities because they are metabolised in the gut and liver. We investigated effects of various isoflavone metabolites, including for the first time the sulphated conjugates formed in the liver and the mucosa of the small intestine, on copper-induced LDL oxidation. The parent aglycones inhibited oxidation, although only 5% as well as quercetin. Metabolism increased or decreased their effectiveness. Equol inhibited 2.65-fold better than its parent compound daidzein and 8-hydroxydaidzein, not previously assessed, was 12.5-fold better than daidzein. However, monosulphated conjugates of genistein, daidzein and equol were much less effective and disulphates completely ineffective. Since almost all isoflavones circulate as conjugates, these data suggest that despite the increased potency produced by some metabolic changes, isoflavones may not be effective antioxidants in vivo unless they are deconjugated again.

Effect of circulating forms of soy isoflavones on the oxidation of low density lipoprotein

Soy isoflavones are thought to have a cardioprotective effect that is partly mediated by an inhibitory influence on the oxidation of low density lipoprotein (LDL). However, the aglycone forms investigated in many previous studies do not circulate in appreciable quantities because they are metabolised in the gut and liver. We investigated effects of various isoflavone metabolites, including for the first time the sulphated conjugates formed in the liver and the mucosa of the small intestine, on copper-induced LDL oxidation. The parent aglycones inhibited oxidation, although only 5% as well as quercetin. Metabolism increased or decreased their effectiveness. Equol inhibited 2.65-fold better than its parent compound daidzein and 8-hydroxydaidzein, not previously assessed, was 12.5-fold better than daidzein. However, monosulphated conjugates of genistein, daidzein and equol were much less effective and disulphates completely ineffective. Since almost all isoflavones circulate as conjugates, these data suggest that despite the increased potency produced by some metabolic changes, isoflavones may not be effective antioxidants in vivo unless they are deconjugated again.

Age-related increases in circulating inflammatory markers in men are independent of BMI, blood pressure and blood lipid concentrations

Objective: To examine whether age-related increase in concentrations of circulating inflammatory mediators is due to concurrent increases in cardiovascular risk factors or is independent of these. Methods and results: Cytokines (IL-6, IL-18), chemokines (6Ckine, MCP-1, IP-10), soluble adhesion molecules (sICAM-1, sVCAM-1, sE-selectin) and adipokines (adiponectin) were measured in the plasma of healthy male subjects aged 18-84 years (n = 162). These were related to known cardiovascular risk factors (age, BMI, systolic and diastolic blood pressure, plasma total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, HDL cholesterol and triacylglycerol concentrations) in order to identify significant associations. Plasma concentrations of sVCAM-1, sE-selectin, IL-6, IL-18, MCP-1, 6Ckine, IP-10 and adiponectin, but not sICAM-1, were significantly positively correlated with age, as well as with several other cardiovascular risk factors. The correlations with other risk factors disappeared when age was controlled for. In contrast, the correlations with age remained significant for sVCAM-1, IL-6, MCP-1, 6Ckine and IP-10 when other cardiovascular risk factors were controlled for. Conclusions: Plasma concentrations of some inflammatory markers (sVCAM-1, IL-6, MCP-L 6Ckine, IP-10) are positively correlated with age, independent of other cardiovascular risk factors. This suggests that age-related inflammation may not be driven by recognised risk factors. (C) 2006 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

Molecular characterisation of the gut microflora of healthy and inflammatory bowel disease cats using fluorescence in situ hybridisation with special reference to Desulfovibrio spp

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a common cause of chronic large bowel diarrhoea in cats. Although the aetiology of IBD is unknown, an immune-mediated response to a luminal antigen is thought to be involved. As knowledge concerning the colonic microflora of cats is limited and requires further investigation, the purpose of this study was to determine the presence of specific bacterial groups in normal and IBD cats, and the potential role they play in the health of the host. Total bacterial populations, Bacteroides spp., Bifidobacterium spp., Clostridium histolyticum subgp., Lactobacillus-Enterococcus subgp. and Desulfovibrio spp. were enumerated in 34 healthy cats and 11 IBD cats using fluorescence in situ hybridisation. The study is one of the first to show the presence of Desulfovibrio in cats. Total bacteria, Bifidobacterium spp. and Bacteroides spp. counts were all significantly higher in healthy cats when compared with IBD cats, whereas Desulfovibrio spp. (producers of toxic sulphides) numbers were found to be significantly higher in colitic cats. The information obtained from this study suggests that modulation of bacterial flora by increasing bifidobacteria and decreasing Desulfovibrio spp. may be beneficial to cats with IBD. Dietary intervention may be an important aspect of their treatment.