Seawater carbonate chemistry and calcification rate of cold-water coral Lophelia pertusa during experiments, 2011

Ocean acidity has increased by 30% since preindustrial times due to the uptake of anthropogenic CO2 and is projected to rise by another 120% before 2100 if CO2 emissions continue at current rates. Ocean acidification is expected to have wide-ranging impacts on marine life, including reduced growth and net erosion of coral reefs. Our present understanding of the impacts of ocean acidification on marine life, however, relies heavily on results from short-term CO2 perturbation studies. Here we present results from the first long-term CO2 perturbation study on the dominant reef-building cold-water coral Lophelia pertusa and relate them to results from a short-term study to compare the effect of exposure time on the coral's responses. Short-term (one week) high CO2 exposure resulted in a decline of calcification by 26-29% for a pH decrease of 0.1 units and net dissolution of calcium carbonate. In contrast, L. pertusa was capable to acclimate to acidified conditions in long-term (six months) incubations, leading to even slightly enhanced rates of calcification. Net growth is sustained even in waters sub-saturated with respect to aragonite. Acclimation to seawater acidification did not cause a measurable increase in metabolic rates. This is the first evidence of successful acclimation in a coral species to ocean acidification, emphasizing the general need for long-term incubations in ocean acidification research. To conclude on the sensitivity of cold-water coral reefs to future ocean acidification further ecophysiological studies are necessary which should also encompass the role of food availability and rising temperatures.

AlN-based BAW resonators with CNT electrodes for gravimetric biosensing

Solidly mounted resonators (SMRs) with a top carbon nanotubes (CNTs) surface coating that doubles as an electrode and as a sensing layer have been fabricated. The influence of the CNTs on the frequency response of the resonators was studied by direct comparison to identical devices with a top metallic electrode. It was found that the CNTs introduced significantly less mass load on the resonators and these devices exhibited a greater quality factor, Q (>2000, compared to ∼1000 for devices with metal electrodes), which increases the gravimetric sensitivity of the devices by allowing the tracking of smaller frequency shifts. Protein solutions with different concentrations were loaded on the top of the resonators and their responses to mass-load from physically adsorbed coatings were investigated. Results show that resonators using CNTs as the top electrode exhibited a higher frequency change for a given load (∼0.25 MHz cm2 ng−1) compared to that of a metal thin film electrode (∼0.14 MHz cm2 ng−1), due to the lower mass of the CNTelectrodes and their higher active surface area compared to that of a thin film metal electrode. It is therefore concluded that the use of CNTelectrodes on resonators for their use as gravimetric biosensors is a significant improvement over metallic electrodes that are normally employed.

Evaluación del comportamiento mecánico de estructuras de hormigón armado utilizadas como elementos termoactivos

El objetivo de este trabajo es conocer las posibles modificaciones que puede producir en el comportamiento de las estructuras de hormigón armado (EHA) el hecho de que sean utilizadas como estructuras termoactivas, ya sea como intercambiadores en contacto con el terreno, o como sistema de distribución de calor utilizando la inercia térmica de los elementos de hormigón del edificio, basándose en el uso de energías renovables. Las EHA termoactivas se caracterizan por la incorporación en su interior de tubos de polietileno por los que circulan fluidos a temperaturas medias, que pueden incidir en el comportamiento mecánico de los elementos estructurales debido a dos efectos fundamentales: el incremento de temperatura que se produce en el interior de la EHA y la perturbación provocada por la incorporación de los tubos de polietileno. Con este fin, se ha realizado una campaña experimental de probetas de hormigón, estudiando los dos efectos por separado, por un lado se ha evaluado el comportamiento de probetas de hormigón tipo H-25 y tipo H-30 sometidas a cuatro temperaturas diferentes: 20ºC, 40ºC, 70ºC y 100ºC, ensayando la resistencia a compresión y la resistencia a anclaje/adherencia mediante ensayo “pull-out”; y, por otro lado, se ha evaluado el comportamiento de probetas de hormigón tipo H-25 y tipo H-30, elaboradas con dos tipos de molde (cilíndrico y cúbico), en las que se ha colocado tubos de polietileno en su interior en distintas posiciones, ensayando su resistencia a compresión. Los resultados de los ensayos han puesto de manifiesto que aunque se produce una disminución en la resistencia a compresión, y a arrancamiento, del hormigón, al ser sometido a aumentos de temperatura, esta disminución de la propiedades mecánicas es inferior al 20% al no superar esta tecnología los 70ºC; y respecto a la variación de la resistencia a compresión de probetas cilíndricas y cúbicas, debidas a la incorporación de los tubos de polietileno, se observa que si la posición de los mismos es paralela a la dirección de la carga tampoco se ven comprometidas las propiedad mecánicas del hormigón en valores superiores al 20%. ABSTRACT The aim of this project is to study the effects of using concrete structures as thermo-active constructions, either as energy foundations or other kind of thermo-active ground structures, or as a thermally activated building structure utilizing its own thermal mass conductivity and storage capacity to heat and cool buildings, based on renewable or “free” energy sources. The pipes, filled with a heat carrier fluid, that are embedded into the building´s concrete elements may bring on two different adverse effects on concrete structures. In one hand, the consequence of thermal variations and, on the other hand, because of the fact that the pipes are inside of the concrete mortar and in direct contact with the reinforcing steel bars. For this reason, different types of specimens and testing procedures have been proposed to discuss the effects of temperature (20º, 40ºC, 70ºC y 100ºC) on the performance of two different hardened concrete: H-25 and H-30, and the effects of having the pipes embedded in different positions inside of specimens made of two types of concrete, H-25 and H-30, and with two kind of cast, cylindrical and cubical. The experimental program includes the use of compressive strength test and also pull-out test, in order to investigate the interfacial adhesion quality and interfacial properties between steel bar and concrete. The results of the mechanical test showed that the increase of temperature in hardened concrete specimens lower than 70ºC, and the introduction of embedded pipes placed in parallel to the load, in cylindrical or cubic specimens, does not jeopardize the mechanical properties of concrete with strength decreases higher than 20%.

Optical characterisation of semi-transparent PV modules for building integration

A complete characterisation of PV modules for building integration is needed in order to know their influence on the building’s global energy balance. Specifically, certain characteristic parameters should be obtained for each different PV module suitable for building integrated photovoltaics (BIPV), some by direct or indirect measurements at the laboratory, and others by monitoring the element performance mounted in real operating conditions. In the case of transparent building envelopes it is particularly important to perform an optical and thermal characterization of the PV modules that would be integrated in them. This paper addresses the optical characterization of some commercial thin-film PV modules having different degrees of transparency, suitable for building integration in façades. The approach is based on the measurement of the spectral UV/Vis/NIR reflectance and transmittance of the different considered samples, both at normal incidence and as a function of the angle of incidence. With the obtained results, the total and zoned UV, visible and NIR transmission and reflection values are calculated, enabling the correct characterization of the PV modules integrated in façades and the subsequent evaluation of their impact over the electrical, thermal and lighting performance in a building.

Identification of intermediate debonding damage in FRP-plated RC beams based on multi-objective particle swarm optimization without updated baseline model

Fiber reinforced polymer composites (FRP) have found widespread usage in the repair and strengthening of concrete structures. FRP composites exhibit high strength-to-weight ratio, corrosion resistance, and are convenient to use in repair applications. Externally bonded FRP flexural strengthening of concrete beams is the most extended application of this technique. A common cause of failure in such members is associated with intermediate crack-induced debonding (IC debonding) of the FRP substrate from the concrete in an abrupt manner. Continuous monitoring of the concrete?FRP interface is essential to pre- vent IC debonding. Objective condition assessment and performance evaluation are challenging activities since they require some type of monitoring to track the response over a period of time. In this paper, a multi-objective model updating method integrated in the context of structural health monitoring is demonstrated as promising technology for the safety and reliability of this kind of strengthening technique. The proposed method, solved by a multi-objective extension of the particle swarm optimization method, is based on strain measurements under controlled loading. The use of permanently installed fiber Bragg grating (FBG) sensors embedded into the FRP-concrete interface or bonded onto the FRP strip together with the proposed methodology results in an automated method able to operate in an unsupervised mode.

Almacenamiento de energía térmica por calor latente en los edificios: bases para la optimización de aplicaciones pasivas, opacas y traslúcidas

La principal motivación para la elección del tema de la tesis es nuestra realidad energética y ambiental. Y más específicamente, la necesidad urgente de dar una respuesta a esta realidad desde el sector de la edificación. Por lo que, el trabajo parte de la búsqueda de soluciones pasivas que ayuden a la reducción del consumo energético y de las emisiones de C02 de los edificios, tanto nuevos como existentes. El objeto de estudio son aplicaciones innovadoras, basadas en el uso de materiales reactivos, con un efecto térmico de memoria bidireccional. La energía es un elemento imprescindible para el desarrollo. Sin embargo, el modelo energético predominante, basado principalmente en la utilización de combustibles de origen fósil, es uno de los importantes responsables del deterioro ambiental que sufre el planeta. Además, sus reservas son limitadas y están concentradas en unas pocas regiones del mundo, lo que genera problemas de dependencia, competitividad y de seguridad de suministro. Dado el gran potencial de ahorro energético del sector de la edificación, la Unión Europea en sus directivas enfatiza la necesidad de mejorar la eficiencia energética de los edificios. Añadiendo, además, la obligatoriedad de desarrollar edificios “energía casi nula”, cuyo prerrequisito es tener un muy alto rendimiento energético. En España, los edificios son responsables del 31% del consumo de energía primaria. La mayor parte de este consumo se relaciona a la utilización de sistemas activos de acondicionamiento. Una medida efectiva para reducir la demanda es mejorar la envolvente. Sin embargo, hay que buscar estrategias adicionales para aumentar aún más la eficiencia de los edificios nuevos y existentes. Para los climas de España, el uso de la inercia térmica ha probado ser una estrategia válida. Sin embargo, su funcionamiento está vinculado al peso y al volumen de los materiales utilizados. Esto limita sus posibilidades en la rehabilitación energética y en los nuevos edificios basados en la construcción ligera. Una alternativa es el uso de aplicaciones de almacenamiento térmico por calor latente, utilizando materiales de cambio de fase (PCM). Los PCM son sustancias con un muy alto calor de fusión, capaces de almacenar una gran cantidad de energía térmica sin requerir aumentos significativos de peso o volumen. Estas características los hacen idóneos para reducir el consumo relacionado con el acondicionamiento térmico, en edificios nuevos y existentes. En la parte preliminar de la investigación, se encontró que para lograr un aprovechamiento óptimo de las aplicaciones con PCM es necesario tener un conocimiento profundo de su funcionamiento y de las variables del sistema. De ahí que el objetivo principal de la presente tesis sea: establecer las bases para la optimizatión integral de las aplicaciones con almacenamiento de energía térmica por calor latente, identificando y validando sus variables más relevantes. La investigación consta de tres partes. La primera, documental, sistematizando y jerarquizando la información científica publicada; la segunda, numérica, basada en un análisis paramétrico de una aplicación con PCM, utilizando simulaciones térmicas; y la tercera, experimental, monitorizando el funcionamiento térmico y energético de diferentes aplicaciones con PCM en módulos a escala real. Los resultados brindan un más profundo entendimiento del funcionamiento de las aplicaciones evaluadas. Han permitido identificar sus variables relevantes, cuantificar su influencia, y determinar condiciones óptimas para su utilización así como situaciones en las que sería muy difícil justificar su uso. En el proceso, se realizó la caracterización térmica y energética de aplicaciones con PCM, tanto opacas como traslúcidas. Además, se ha encontrado que las aplicaciones con PCM son capaces de aumentar la eficiencia energética inclusive en recintos con diseños optimizados, demostrando ser una de las estrategias adecuadas para lograr el muy alto desempeño energético requerido en los edificios energía nula. ABSTRACT The main motivation for choosing the theme of the thesis is our energy and environmental reality. And more specifically, the urgent need to respond to this reality from the building sector. This is why, the work start with the search of passive solutions that help reduce energy consumption and C02 emissions of buildings, in both new and existing ones. The object of study is innovative applications based on the use of responsive materials, with bidirectional thermal memory. Energy is an essential element for development. However, the predominant energy model, based primarily on the use of fossil fuels, is one of the major responsible for the environmental deterioration of the planet, the cause of most of the CO2 emissions. Furthermore, reserves of fossil fuels are limited and are concentrated in a few regions of the world, which creates issues related to dependency, competitiveness, and security of supply. Given the large potential for energy savings in the building sector, the European Union in its directives emphasizes the need to improve energy efficiency in buildings. Also, adding the obligation to develop "nearly zero energy" buildings, whose first prerequisite is to achieve a very high energy efficiency. In Spain, buildings are responsible for 31% of primary energy consumption and most of this consumption is related to the used of HVAC systems. One of the most effective measures to reduce demand is to improve the envelope. However, it is necessary to look for additional strategies to further increase the efficiency of new and existing buildings. For the predominant climates in Spain, use of the thermal inertia may be a valid strategy. Nevertheless, its operation is linked to weight and volume of the materials used. This limits their possibilities in the existing buildings energy retrofitting and in the new buildings based on lightweight construction. An alternative is the use of latent heat thermal energy storage applications (LHTES), using phase change materials (PCM). PCM are substances with a high heat of fusion, capable of storing a large amount of thermal energy without requiring significant increases in weight or volume. These features make them ideal for reducing energy consumption associated with thermal conditioning in both new and existing buildings. In the preliminary part of the investigation, it was found that to get optimum utilization of the PCM applications is needed to have a deep understanding of its operation and, in particular, how the system variables affect its performance. Hence, the main objective of this thesis is: to establish the basis for the integral optimization of applications with latent heat thermal energy storage, identifying and validating the most relevant variables. The research comprises of three parts. The first, documentary, systematizing and prioritizing published scientific information. The second, numeric, based on a parametric analysis of an application PCM using thermal simulations. The third, experimental, monitoring the thermal and energy performance of different applications with PCM on real scale test cells. The results provide a complete understanding of the functioning of the evaluated LHTES application. They have allowed to identify their relevant variables, quantify their influence and determine optimum conditions for use as well as situations where it would be very difficult to justify its use. In the process, it was carried out the power and thermal characterization of various opaque and translucent PCM applications. Furthermore, it has been found that applications with PCM can increase the energy efficiency, even in buildings with optimized designs; proving to be one of the appropriate measures to achieve the high energy performance required in zero energy buildings.

Síntese, caracterização e modificação de superfícies de sílicas mesoporosas ordenadas para captura de CO2

Processos como a purificação do metano (CH4) e a produção de hidrogênio gasoso (H2) envolvem etapas de separação de CO2. Atualmente, etanolaminas como monoetanolamina (MEA), dietanolamina (DEA), metildietanolamina (MDEA) e trietanolamina (TEA) são as substâncias mais utilizadas no processo de separação/captura de CO2 em processos industriais. Entretanto, o uso destas substâncias apresenta alguns inconvenientes devido à alta volatilidade, dificuldade de se trabalhar com material líquido, também ao alto gasto energético envolvido das etapas de regeneração e à baixa estabilidade térmica e química. Com base nessa problemática, esse trabalho teve por objetivo a síntese de um tipo de sílica mesoporosa altamente ordenada (SBA-15) de modo a utilizá-la no processo de captura de CO2. O trabalho foi dividido em quatro etapas experimentais que envolveram a síntese da SBA-15, o estudo do comportamento térmico de algumas etanolaminas livres, síntese e caracterização de materiais adsorventes preparados a partir de incorporação de etanolaminas à SBA-15 e estudo da eficiência de captura de CO2 por esses materiais. Novas alternativas de síntese da SBA-15 foram estudadas neste trabalho, visando aperfeiçoar as propriedades texturais do material produzido. Tais alternativas são baseadas na remoção do surfatante, utilizado como molde na síntese da sílica mesoporosa, por meio da extração por Soxhlet, utilizando diferentes solventes. O processo contribuiu para melhorar as propriedades do material obtido, evitando o encolhimento da estrutura que pode ser ocasionado durante a etapa de calcinação. Por meio de técnicas como TG/DTG, DSC, FTIR e Análise Elementar de C, H e N foi realizada a caracterização físico-química e termoanalítica da MEA, DEA, MDEA e TEA, visando melhor conhecer as características destas substâncias. Estudos cinéticos baseados nos métodos termogravimétricos isotérmicos e não isotérmicos (Método de Ozawa) foram realizados, permitindo a determinação de parâmetros cinéticos envolvidos nas etapas de volatilização/decomposição térmica das etanolaminas. Além das técnicas acima mencionadas, MEV, MET, SAXS e Medidas de Adsorção de N2 foram utilizadas na caraterização da SBA-15 antes e após a incorporação das etanolaminas. Dentre as etanolaminas estudadas, a TEA apresentou maior estabilidade térmica, entretanto, devido ao seu maior impedimento estérico, é a etanolamina que apresenta menor afinidade com o CO2. Diferentemente das demais etanolaminas estudadas, a decomposição térmica da DEA envolve uma reação intramolecular, levando a formação de MEA e óxido de etileno. A incorporação destes materiais à SBA-15 aumentou a estabilidade térmica das etanolaminas, uma vez que parte do material permanece dentro dos poros da sílica. Os ensaios de adsorção de CO2 mostraram que a incorporação da MEA à SBA-15 catalisou o processo de decomposição térmica da mesma. A MDEA foi a etanolamina que apresentou maior poder de captura de CO2 e sua estabilidade térmica foi consideravelmente aumentada quando a mesma foi incorporada à SBA-15, aumentando também seu potencial de captura de CO2.

Caracterização físico-química e analítica de fibras capilares e ingredientes cosméticos para proteção

Com o aumento dos tratamentos químicos e/ou físicos nos cabelos aos quais são realizados mediante o uso de dispositivos térmicos, há uma maior preocupação a respeito dos danos causados aos cabelos por estes tipos de tratamentos. O conhecimento dos efeitos, benefícios e/ou malefícios, de ingredientes cosméticos em cabelos torna-se necessário, pois facilita a busca por produtos baseada no tipo de cabelo. O principal objetivo do trabalho foi a caracterização físico-química, analítica e térmica de mechas de cabelo de diferentes etnias (caucasiano, oriental e afro-étnico virgem e brasileiro virgem e descolorido) antes e após o uso de ingredientes cosméticos seguido de um tratamento térmico (utilizando piastra) e intercalando com lavagens. O estudo das amostras de cabelo e de uma amostra de queratina animal envolveu a utilização das técnicas de TG/DTG, DSC, análise elementar, FTIR, MEV e técnicas de avaliação de eficácia, como tensão/deformação, penteabilidade e quebra por escovação. A partir da TG/DTG, foi possível avaliar as etapas de decomposição térmica das amostras de cabelo virgem e de queratina animal e estas apresentaram um comportamento térmico semelhante entre si. O estudo cinético não isotérmico por TG mostrou que, dos diferentes tipos de amostras de cabelo virgem, o afro-étnico apresentou menor estabilidade térmica e o oriental foi o mais estável termicamente. Os resultados de DSC corroboraram os obtidos por TG, demonstrando que a amostra de cabelo afro-étnico apresentou temperatura de desnaturação térmica das cadeias de α-queratina menor (TD = 223°C) do que as amostras dos outros tipos de cabelo (TD = 236°C). As mechas de cabelo virgem e clareadas foram tratadas com formulações cosméticas contendo silicones e avaliadas quanto a eficiência destes na proteção térmica dos cabelos. Algumas delas mostraram eficiência na proteção térmica das cadeias de α-queratina, diminuindo o seu grau de desnaturação. Foi possível observar que a associação do calor da piastra com as lavagens sucessivas causou danos tanto à cutícula (conforme resultados de FTIR e MEV), como também, ao córtex dos cabelos (conforme resultados de DSC). Em alguns casos, os danos causados foram tão graves que as camadas mais superficiais da cutícula sofreram descamações. O estudo mostrou, também, que a eficiência da proteção térmica nos cabelos depende do tipo da formulação cosmética em que estes protetores estão incorporados e do estado em que os cabelos se encontram. A DSC permitiu a avaliação da modificação termicamente induzida das cadeias de α-queratina e sua posterior desnaturação. O estudo envolvendo a associação das diferentes técnicas apresentou-se viável na avaliação tanto dos danos causados aos cabelos quanto na eficiência dos ingredientes cosméticos na proteção térmica dos mesmos.

NaOH and KOH for preparing activated carbons used in energy and environmental applications

Alkaline hydroxides, especially sodium and potassium hydroxides, are multi-million-ton per annum commodities and strong chemical bases that have large scale applications. Some of them are related with their consequent ability to degrade most materials, depending on the temperature used. As an example, these chemicals are involved in the manufacture of pulp and paper, textiles, biodiesels, soaps and detergents, acid gases removal (e.g., SO2) and others, as well as in many organic synthesis processes. Sodium and potassium hydroxides are strong and corrosive bases, but they are also very stable chemicals that can melt without decomposition, NaOH at 318ºC, and KOH at 360ºC. Hence, they can react with most materials, even with relatively inert ones such as carbon materials. Thus, at temperatures higher than 360ºC these melted hydroxides easily react with most types of carbon-containing raw materials (coals, lignocellulosic materials, pitches, etc.), as well as with most pure carbon materials (carbon fibers, carbon nanofibers and carbon nanotubes). This reaction occurs via a solid-liquid redox reaction in which both hydroxides (NaOH or KOH) are converted to the following main products: hydrogen, alkaline metals and alkaline carbonates, as a result of the carbon precursor oxidation. By controlling this reaction, and after a suitable washing process, good quality activated carbons (ACs), a classical type of porous materials, can be prepared. Such carbon activation by hydroxides, known since long time ago, continues to be under research due to the unique properties of the resulting activated carbons. They have promising high porosity developments and interesting pore size distributions. These two properties are important for new applications such as gas storage (e.g., natural gas or hydrogen), capture, storage and transport of carbon dioxide, electricity storage demands (EDLC-supercapacitors-) or pollution control. Because these applications require new and superior quality activated carbons, there is no doubt that among the different existing activating processes, the one based on the chemical reaction between the carbon precursor and the alkaline hydroxide (NaOH or KOH) gives the best activation results. The present article covers different aspects of the activation by hydroxides, including the characteristics of the resulting activated carbons and their performance in some environment-related applications. The following topics are discussed: i) variables of the preparation method, such as the nature of the hydroxide, the type of carbon precursor, the hydroxide/carbon precursor ratio, the mixing procedure of carbon precursor and hydroxide (impregnation of the precursor with a hydroxide solution or mixing both, hydroxide and carbon precursor, as solids), or the temperature and time of the reaction are discussed, analyzing their effect on the resulting porosity; ii) analysis of the main reactions occurring during the activation process, iii) comparative analysis of the porosity development obtained from different activation processes (e.g., CO2, steam, phosphoric acid and hydroxides activation); and iv) performance of the prepared activated carbon materials on a few applications, such as VOC removal, electricity and gas storages.

Relevance of porosity and surface chemistry of superactivated carbons in capacitors

We show, through some examples, that chemical activation by alkaline hydroxides permits the preparation of activated carbons with tailored pore volume, pore size distribution, pore structure and surface chemistry, which are useful for their application as electrodes in supercapacitors. Examples are presented discussing the importance of each of these properties on the double layer capacitance, on the kinetics of the electric double-layer charge-discharge process and on the pseudo-capacitative contribution from the surface functional groups or the addition of a conducting polymer.

Electrocatalytic Performance of SiO2-SWCNT Nanocomposites Prepared by Electroassisted Deposition

Composite materials made of porous SiO2 matrices filled with single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) were deposited on electrodes by an electroassisted deposition method. The synthesized materials were characterized by several techniques, showing that porous silica prevents the aggregation of SWCNT on the electrodes, as could be observed by transmission electron microscopy and Raman spectroscopy. Different redox probes were employed to test their electrochemical sensing properties. The silica layer allows the permeation of the redox probes to the electrode surface and improves the electrochemical reversibility indicating an electrocatalytic effect by the incorporation of dispersed SWCNT into the silica films.

Semivolatile and Volatile Compound Evolution during Pyrolysis and Combustion of Colombian Coffee Husk

Thermal characterization of coffee husk (Coffea arabica) from Colombian coffee has been studied. Different products, mostly volatile and semivolatile compounds, were analyzed, paying special attention to 16 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) classified by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA) as priority pollutants, frequently used for checking toxicity in environmental samples. A fixed amount of raw material was exposed to different excess air ratios (λ = 0–2.33) and nominal temperature of 1123 K in a horizontal quartz reactor. The results show that coffee husk is a promising biomass for energetic exploitation with reduced formation of PAHs in a low air excess ratio. This implies reduction of carcinogenic potential in the limited presence of oxygen, demonstrated by calculating the carcinogenic potential (KE) for each experimental condition. Most volatile and semivolatile compounds followed different trends, with the oxygen presence prevailing their decomposition with increasing the air excess ratio.