Gobernanza del espacio público: el comparendo ambiental en la UPZ 97 Chicó Lago 2014 - 2016.

La política del comparendo ambiental como herramienta pedagógica para el adecuado manejo de los residuos sólidos, pretende responsabilizar a la ciudadanía sobre el aseo del espacio público, en tanto la gestión por sí sola del Estado o las empresas privadas no ha logrado alcanzar este objetivo. El presente trabajo busca analizar, en el marco del servicio público domiciliario de aseo, la gestión del comparendo ambiental en el espacio público de la UPZ 97 Chicó Lago del 2014 al 2016, haciendo énfasis en las relaciones de los actores desde una perspectiva de gobernanza. De esa manera nos aproximamos a la noción de la ciudadanía frente al comparendo ambiental, para determinar cómo la política incluye su participación en la gestión del aseo en el espacio público.

LOS RECURSOS MINERALES POTENCIALES DE PEREZ ZELEDON PACIFICO SUR Y SUS POSIBILIDADES DE APROVECHAMIENTO ECONOMICO

Esta presentación tiene por objeto poner en evidencia el potencial minero de Pérez Zeledón en sus aspectos más relevantes desde el punto de vista de la prospección y evaluación con fines económicos. En este sentido se omiten tecnicismos que podrían oscurecer los alcances del enfoque, cuyo fin primordial es destacar la importancia de los recursos minerales potenciales en las políticas de desarrollo de la región.   SUMMARY The objective of this article is to make evident the most relevant aspects of the mining potential in the Perez Zeledon region of Costa Rica. Prospecting and evaluation aspects are studied from an economic point of view. Also, technical terms are left out that would have altered the scope of the initial approach, whose primary aim is to emphasize the importance of the mineral resources in the future development policies of the region.     RESUME Le canton de Perez Zeledon s’étend sur une zone qui présente un certain potentiel minier ce qui justifié l’effort de prospection et l’exploitation des gisements. Le but de cet article est démettre en relief l’importance de ce potentiel afin d’orienter les politiques de développement locales.

A geographical analysis of the role of water supply and sanitation in the risk of helminth infections of children in West Africa

Background We investigated the geographical variation of water supply and sanitation indicators (WS&S) and their role to the risk of schistosomiasis and hookworm infection in school age children in West Africa. The aim was to predict large-scale geographical variation in WS&S, quantify the attributable risk of S. haematobium, S. mansoni and hookworm infections due to WS&S and identify communities where sustainable transmission control could be targeted across the region. Methods National cross-sectional household-based demographic health surveys were conducted in 24,542 households in Burkina Faso, Ghana and Mali, in 2003–2006. We generated spatially-explicit predictions of areas without piped water, toilet facilities and finished floors in West Africa, adjusting for household covariates. Using recently published helminth prevalence data we developed Bayesian geostatistical models (MGB) of S. haematobium, S. mansoni and hookworm infection in West Africa including environmental and the mapped outputs for WS&S. Using these models we estimated the effect of WS&S on parasite risk, quantified their attributable fraction of infection, and mapped the risk of infection in West Africa. Findings Our maps show that most areas in West Africa are very poorly served by water supply except in major urban centers. There is a better geographical coverage for toilet availability and improved household flooring. We estimated smaller attributable risks for water supply in S. mansoni (47%) compared to S. haematobium (71%), and 5% of hookworm cases could be averted by improving sanitation. Greater levels of inadequate sanitation increased the risk of schistosomiasis, and increased levels of unsafe water supply increased the risk of hookworm. The role of floor type for S. haematobium infection (21%) was comparable to that of S. mansoni (16%), but was significantly higher for hookworm infection (86%). S. haematobium and hookworm maps accounting for WS&S show small clusters of maximal prevalence areas in areas bordering Burkina Faso and Mali smaller. The map of S. mansoni shows that this parasite is much more wide spread across the north of the Niger River basin than previously predicted. Interpretation Our maps identify areas where the Millennium Development Goal for water and sanitation is lagging behind. Our results show that WS&S are important contributors to the burden of major helminth infections of children in West Africa. Including information about WS&S as well as the “traditional” environmental risk factors in spatial models of helminth risk yielded a substantial gain both in model fit and at explaining the proportion of spatial variance in helminth risk. Mapping the distribution of infection risk adjusted for WS&S allowed the identification of communities in West Africa where integrative preventive chemotherapy and engineering interventions will yield the greatest public health benefits.

African Burkitt Lymphoma: Age-Specific Risk and Correlations with Malaria Biomarkers

African Burkitt lymphoma is an aggressive B-cell, non-Hodgkin lymphoma linked to Plasmodium falciparum malaria. Malaria biomarkers related to onset of African Burkitt lymphoma are unknown. We correlated age-specific patterns of 2,602 cases of African Burkitt lymphoma (60% male, mean ± SD age = 7.1 ± 2.9 years) from Uganda, Ghana, and Tanzania with malaria biomarkers published from these countries. Age-specific patterns of this disease and mean multiplicity of P. falciparum malaria parasites, defined as the average number of distinct genotypes per positive blood sample based on the merozoite surface protein-2 assessed by polymerase chain reaction, were correlated and both peaked between 5 and 9 years. This pattern, which was strong and consistent across regions, contrasted parasite prevalence, which peaked at 2 years and decreased slightly, and geometric mean parasite density, which peaked between 2 and 3 years and decreased sharply. Our findings suggest that concurrent infection with multiple malaria genotypes may be related to onset of African Burkitt lymphoma.

The genesis of 'the new geography and the new imperialism : 1870-1918', or 'how I came to Jamaica and joined the UWI Geography Department

In this article, Brian Hudson relates how he came to write the paper published in the journal Antipode, for which he gained recognition as a radical geographer in the late 1970's. It is a tale of a journey in which the loves of his life, geography, history, travel and his wife of over 40 years, came together through living in a number of different places: the United Kingdom, Ghana, Hong Kong, and Jamaica. After leaving UWI, Brian and his family settled in Brisbane, Australia where he taught at Queensland University of Technology until his retirement.

An e-support firm's response to local e-readiness and the global e-business environment

The purpose of this study is to understand a small e-support firm’s response to the local e-readiness and the global e-business environment in a developing context. E-Support firms provide Web development and consultancy services to user organizations, assisting them in their uptake and maintenance of their Internet applications. Within the e-readiness research area, little is known about e-support firms, particularly in connection with their interaction with their local and the global e-business environment. As yet the emphasis on e-readiness studies has been at the national level. Nevertheless, the e-support sector is very significant in the successful adoption and diffusion of the Internet and related applications in any economy. It is thus important to understand how such firms relate to their e-business environments.That said, this study draws on the interpretive case study of a small e-support firm in Ghana, a developing context, to investigate the firm’s response to the e-readiness level of the local and the global e-business environment. Findings show that the firm could employ resources from the global environment to address most of the infrastructural challenges posed by a relatively poor local e-readiness context. However, its attempt to transfer advanced e-business technologies from the global e-business environment to the local e-business context did not succeed. This chapter offers implications for practice and research concerning the notion of reconciling local and global e-business environments in the small e-support sector.

Entomopathogens for control of Hypsipyla spp

Published information on the incidence of pathogens in the field and laboratory infections of Hypsipyla spp. with entomopathogens is reviewed. In addition, some preliminary results of field collections from Ghana and Costa Rica are presented. Fungal pathogens from the Deuteromycetes have been isolated from both H. robusta Moore and H. grandella Zeller. Mermithid nematodes, Hexamermis spp., have been frequently isolated from larvae in the field and incidence of infection with these pathogens can reach significant levels. Microsporidia have been found in cadavers of larvae collected in the field but none have been identified so far. A number of pathogens of other Lepidoptera have been shown to be infectious to H. grandella , including Bacillus thuringiensis , Deuteromycete fungi and a nucleopolyhedrovirus (NPV) from Autographa californica . Hypsipyla spp. are difficult targets for microbial control, since the larvae are cryptic, occur at low density and occur sporadically. In addition, there is a low damage threshold, the plant is susceptible for a number of years and the susceptible part of the plant will rapidly outgrow any surface application. Key features of the biology of entomopathogens with relevance to the control of low density and cryptic pests are discussed. In the light of this experience, we discuss strategies to improve the possibilities of microbial control of this pest and suggest areas for research.

"Haluan tuonne heti!" : Tulevaisuuskuvia ghanalaisten, isobritannialaisten,suomalaisten ja tansanialaisten lasten piirustuksissa

"I want there now!" Images of the future in the drawings of Ghanaian, British, Finnish and Tanzanian children The aim of the Thesis is to examine what kind of images children aged between 8 and 12 years in Ghana, Great Britain, Finland and Tanzania hold of their future. The study is a qualitative analysis based on data that consists of 214 drawings, digitally photographed and analysed using AtlasTI computer program. The data was coded and divided into " families " whose frequencies were compared in order to maintain results. The assignment was given to the children in the language used in the school and it was similar in each country. The children were introduced to the idea with a set of stimulating questions and after that they were asked to draw and colour with a pen a picture of 1) him/herself as an adult, 2) his/her future home and 3) the people and the animals they think they will be living with. The children were also asked to write down the country and the place they believe to live in their future. They were also encouraged to write down e.g. their dream profession, what they would like to have as hobbies in their adulthood and other important things in their lives. The analysis focuses on the content of the drawings instead of artistic or psychological interpretations. The differences between the drawings from different countries as well as the differences in a single country were significant. The current trends and the experiences children had lived through were present in the drawings. There were no differences in the colour of the skin and the most popular professions were doctor, police and football player. The football was very strongly present in all of the data; almost fourth of the children had either drawn or mentioned football as their future profession or hobby. Different flora was present in 84% of Tanzanian and 70% of Ghanaian drawings compared to the 23% of British and 17% of Finnish drawings. Of all the family forms a dream of the traditional nuclear family could be found among 29% of the drawings. Compared to that a total of 30% wanted either a child of their own without a spouse (15%) or a spouse without a child (15%). Also grandparents, childhood friends, other adults, animals or even space aliens were present and sharing a home with the children in the drawings. Of all children 15% wanted to live totally alone in the future. This was most typical (38%) among the Finnish boys. The cat and the dog were the most popular animals to appear in the drawings. Moving abroad proved to be purely a western phenomenon, dreamed by 57% of the British and 18% of the Finnish children. As results, a negative self-image, violence, lack of expressions of positive feelings and solitude among the Finnish boys in the data were very concerning. Keywords: Images of the future, future studies, future-education, picture analysis

Fungal Planet description sheets: 371-399

Novel species of fungi described in the present study include the following from Australia: Neoseptorioides eucalypti gen. & sp. nov. from Eucalyptus radiata leaves, Phytophthora gondwanensis from soil, Diaporthe tulliensis from rotted stem ends of Theobroma cacao fruit, Diaporthe vawdreyi from fruit rot of Psidium guajava, Magnaporthiopsis agrostidis from rotted roots of Agrostis stolonifera and Semifissispora natalis from Eucalyptus leaf litter. Furthermore, Neopestalotiopsis egyptiaca is described from Mangifera indica leaves (Egypt), Roussoella mexicana from Coffea arabica leaves (Mexico), Calonectria monticola from soil (Thailand), Hygrocybe jackmanii from littoral sand dunes (Canada), Lindgomyces madisonensis from submerged decorticated wood (USA), Neofabraea brasiliensis from Malus domestica (Brazil), Geastrum diosiae from litter (Argentina), Ganoderma wiiroense on angiosperms (Ghana), Arthrinium gutiae from the gut of a grasshopper (India), Pyrenochaeta telephoni from the screen of a mobile phone (India) and Xenoleptographium phialoconidium gen. & sp. nov. on exposed xylem tissues of Gmelina arborea (Indonesia). Several novelties are introduced from Spain, namely Psathyrella complutensis on loamy soil, Chlorophyllum lusitanicum on nitrified grasslands (incl. Chlorophyllum arizonicum comb. nov.), Aspergillus citocrescens from cave sediment and Lotinia verna gen. & sp. nov. from muddy soil. Novel foliicolous taxa from South Africa include Phyllosticta carissicola from Carissa macrocarpa, Pseudopyricularia hagahagae from Cyperaceae and Zeloasperisporium searsiae from Searsia chirindensis. Furthermore, Neophaeococcomyces is introduced as a novel genus, with two new combinations, N. aloes and N. catenatus. Several foliicolous novelties are recorded from La Réunion, France, namely Ochroconis pandanicola from Pandanus utilis, Neosulcatispora agaves gen. & sp. nov. from Agave vera-cruz, Pilidium eucalyptorum from Eucalyptus robusta, Strelitziana syzygii from Syzygium jambos (incl. Strelitzianaceae fam. nov.) and Pseudobeltrania ocoteae from Ocotea obtusata (Beltraniaceae emend.). Morphological and culture characteristics along with ITS DNA barcodes are provided for all taxa.

Human parvovirus B19: tissue persistence and prevalence of prototypic and new variants

Human parvovirus B19 is a minute ssDNA virus causing a wide variety of diseases, including erythema infectiosum, arthropathy, anemias, and fetal death. After primary infection, genomic DNA of B19 has been shown to persist in solid tissues of not only symptomatic but also of constitutionally healthy, immunocompetent individuals. In this thesis, the viral DNA was shown to persist as an apparently intact molecule of full length, and without persistence-specific mutations. Thus, although the mere presence of B19 DNA in tissue can not be used as a diagnostic criterion, a possible role in the pathogenesis of diseases e.g. through mRNA or protein production can not be excluded. The molecular mechanism, the host-cell type and the possible clinical significance of B19 DNA tissue persistence are yet to be elucidated. In the beginning of this work, the B19 genomic sequence was considered highly conserved. However, new variants were found: V9 was detected in 1998 in France, in serum of a child with aplastic crisis. This variant differed from the prototypic B19 sequences by ~10 %. In 2002 we found, persisting in skin of constitutionally healthy humans, DNA of another novel B19 variant, LaLi. Genetically this variant differed from both the prototypic sequences and the variant V9 also by ~10%. Simultaneously, B19 isolates with DNA sequences similar to LaLi were introduced by two other groups, in the USA and France. Based on phylogeny, a classification scheme based on three genotypes (B19 types 1-3) was proposed. Although the B19 virus is mainly transmitted via the respiratory route, blood and plasma-derived products contaminated with high levels of B19 DNA have also been shown to be infectious. The European Pharmacopoeia stipulates that, in Europe, from the beginning of 2004, plasma pools for manufacture must contain less than 104 IU/ml of B19 DNA. Quantitative PCR screening is therefore a prerequisite for restriction of the B19 DNA load and obtaining of safe plasma products. Due to the DNA sequence variation among the three B19 genotypes, however, B19 PCR methods might fail to detect the new variants. We therefore examined the suitability of the two commercially available quantitative B19 PCR tests, LightCycler-Parvovirus B19 quantification kit (Roche Diagnostics) and RealArt Parvo B19 LC PCR (Artus), for detection, quantification and differentiation of the three B19 types known, including B19 types 2 and 3. The former method was highly sensitive for detection of the B19 prototype but was not suitable for detection of types 2 and 3. The latter method detected and differentiated all three B19 virus types. However, one of the two type-3 strains was detected at a lower sensitivity. Then, we assessed the prevalence of the three B19 virus types among Finnish blood donors, by screening pooled plasma samples derived from >140 000 blood-donor units: none of the pools contained detectable levels of B19 virus types 2 or 3. According to the results of other groups, B19 type 2 was absent also among Danish blood-donors, and extremely rare among symptomatic European patients. B19 type 3 has been encountered endemically in Ghana and (apparently) in Brazil, and sporadical cases have been detected in France and the UK. We next examined the biological characteristics of these virus types. The p6 promoter regions of virus types 1-3 were cloned in front of a reporter gene, the constructs were transfected into different cell lines, and the promoter activities were measured. As a result, we found that the activities of the three p6 promoters, although differing in sequence by >20%, were of equal strength, and most active in B19-permissive cells. Furthermore, the infectivity of the three B19 types was examined in two B19-permissive cell lines. RT-PCR revealed synthesis of spliced B19 mRNAs, and immunofluorescence verified the production of NS1 and VP proteins in the infected cells. These experiments suggested similar host-cell tropism and showed that the three virus types are strains of the same species, i.e. human parvovirus B19. Last but not least, the sera from subjects infected in the past either with B19 type 1 or type 2 (as evidenced by tissue persistence of the respective DNAs), revealed in VP1/2- and VP2-EIAs a 100 % cross-reactivity between virus types 1 and 2. These results, together with similar studies by others, indicate that the three B19 genotypes constitute a single serotype.

Water management capacity building to support rapidly developing mining economies

Many developing countries are experiencing rapid expansion in mining with associated water impacts. In most cases mining expansion is outpacing the building of national capacity to ensure that sustainable water management practices are implemented. Since 2011, Australia's International Mining for Development Centre (IM4DC) has funded capacity building in such countries including a program of water projects. Five projects in particular (principally covering experiences from Peru, Colombia, Ghana, Zambia, Indonesia, Philippines and Mongolia) have provided insight into water capacity building priorities and opportunities. This paper reviews the challenges faced by water stakeholders, and proposes the associated capacity needs. The paper uses the evidence derived from the IM4DC projects to develop a set of specific capacity-building recommendations. Recommendations include: the incorporation of mine water management in engineering and environmental undergraduate courses; secondments of staff to suitable partner organisations; training to allow site staff to effectively monitor water including community impacts; leadership training to support a water stewardship culture; training of officials to support implementation of catchment management approaches; and the empowerment of communities to recognise and negotiate solutions to mine-related risks. New initiatives to fund the transfer of multi-disciplinary knowledge from nations with well-developed water management practices are called for.

Forest governance and climate change adaptation : Case studies of four African countries

Africa is threatened by climate change. The adaptive capacity of local communities continues to be weakened by ineffective and inefficient livelihood strategies and inappropriate development interventions. One of the greatest challenges for climate change adaptation in Africa is related to the governance of natural resources used by vulnerable poor groups as assets for adaptation. Practical and good governance activities for adaptation in Africa is urgently and much needed to support adaptation actions, interventions and planning. The adaptation role of forests has not been as prominent in the international discourse and actions as their mitigation role. This study therefore focused on the forest as one of the natural resources used for adaptation. The general objective of this research was to assess the extent to which cases of current forest governance practices in four African countries Burkina Faso, The Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Ghana and Sudan are supportive to the adaptation of vulnerable societies and ecosystems to impacts of climate change. Qualitative and quantitative analyses from surveys, expert consultations and group discussions were used in analysing the case studies. The entire research was guided by three conceptual sets of thinking forest governance, climate change vulnerability and ecosystem services. Data for the research were collected from selected ongoing forestry activities and programmes. The study mainly dealt with forest management policies and practices that can improve the adaptation of forest ecosystems (Study I) and the adaptive capacity through the management of forest resources by vulnerable farmers (Studies II, III, IV and V). It was found that adaptation is not part of current forest policies, but, instead, policies contain elements of risk management practices, which are also relevant to the adaptation of forest ecosystems. These practices include, among others, the management of forest fires, forest genetic resources, non-timber resources and silvicultural practices. Better livelihood opportunities emerged as the priority for the farmers. These vulnerable farmers had different forms of forest management. They have a wide range of experience and practical knowledge relevant to ensure and achieve livelihood improvement alongside sustainable management and good governance of natural resources. The contributions of traded non-timber forest products to climate change adaptation appear limited for local communities, based on their distribution among the stakeholders in the market chain. Plantation (agro)forestry, if well implemented and managed by communities, has a high potential in reducing socio-ecological vulnerability by increasing the food production and restocking degraded forest lands. Integration of legal arrangements with continuous monitoring, evaluation and improvement may drive this activity to support short, medium and long term expectations related to adaptation processes. The study concludes that effective forest governance initiatives led by vulnerable poor groups represent one practical way to improve the adaptive capacities of socio-ecological systems against the impacts of climate change in Africa.

Physical Properties of Deep Drill Cores : Implications for Meteorite Impact Effects and Crustal Structures

Physical properties provide valuable information about the nature and behavior of rocks and minerals. The changes in rock physical properties generate petrophysical contrasts between various lithologies, for example, between shocked and unshocked rocks in meteorite impact structures or between various lithologies in the crust. These contrasts may cause distinct geophysical anomalies, which are often diagnostic to their primary cause (impact, tectonism, etc). This information is vital to understand the fundamental Earth processes, such as impact cratering and associated crustal deformations. However, most of the present day knowledge of changes in rock physical properties is limited due to a lack of petrophysical data of subsurface samples, especially for meteorite impact structures, since they are often buried under post-impact lithologies or eroded. In order to explore the uppermost crust, deep drillings are required. This dissertation is based on the deep drill core data from three impact structures: (i) the Bosumtwi impact structure (diameter 10.5 km, 1.07 Ma age; Ghana), (ii) the Chesapeake Bay impact structure (85 km, 35 Ma; Virginia, U.S.A.), and (iii) the Chicxulub impact structure (180 km, 65 Ma; Mexico). These drill cores have yielded all basic lithologies associated with impact craters such as post-impact lithologies, impact rocks including suevites and breccias, as well as fractured and unfractured target rocks. The fourth study case of this dissertation deals with the data of the Paleoproterozoic Outokumpu area (Finland), as a non-impact crustal case, where a deep drilling through an economically important ophiolite complex was carried out. The focus in all four cases was to combine results of basic petrophysical studies of relevant rocks of these crustal structures in order to identify and characterize various lithologies by their physical properties and, in this way, to provide new input data for geophysical modellings. Furthermore, the rock magnetic and paleomagnetic properties of three impact structures, combined with basic petrophysics, were used to acquire insight into the impact generated changes in rocks and their magnetic minerals, in order to better understand the influence of impact. The obtained petrophysical data outline the various lithologies and divide rocks into four domains. Based on target lithology the physical properties of the unshocked target rocks are controlled by mineral composition or fabric, particularly porosity in sedimentary rocks, while sediments result from diverse sedimentation and diagenesis processes. The impact rocks, such as breccias and suevites, strongly reflect the impact formation mechanism and are distinguishable from the other lithologies by their density, porosity and magnetic properties. The numerous shock features resulting from melting, brecciation and fracturing of the target rocks, can be seen in the changes of physical properties. These features include an increase in porosity and subsequent decrease in density in impact derived units, either an increase or a decrease in magnetic properties (depending on a specific case), as well as large heterogeneity in physical properties. In few cases a slight gradual downward decrease in porosity, as a shock-induced fracturing, was observed. Coupled with rock magnetic studies, the impact generated changes in magnetic fraction the shock-induced magnetic grain size reduction, hydrothermal- or melting-related magnetic mineral alteration, shock demagnetization and shock- or temperature-related remagnetization can be seen. The Outokumpu drill core shows varying velocities throughout the drill core depending on the microcracking and sample conditions. This is similar to observations by Kern et al., (2009), who also reported the velocity dependence on anisotropy. The physical properties are also used to explain the distinct crustal reflectors as observed in seismic reflection studies in the Outokumpu area. According to the seismic velocity data, the interfaces between the diopside-tremolite skarn layer and either serpentinite, mica schist or black schist are causing the strong seismic reflectivities.

"But we are dong it!" Ghanalaisen Hon kunnan naisvaltuutettujen työssään kohtaamat haasteet

Tässä tutkielmassa kuvataan tekijöitä, jotka haittaavat naisten toimintaa kunnanvaltuutettuina tehokkaalla tai naisten itsensä haluamalla tavalla sekä vaikuttavat heidän mahdollisuuksiinsa vaikuttaa päätöksentekoon Ghanan paikallishallinnossa. Tutkimuksessa analysoidaan sekä paikallishallintoon nimitettyjen että vaaleilla valittujen naisten asemaa valtuutettuina, mitä aiemmissa tutkimuksissa Ghanan paikallishallinnosta ei ole tehty. Ghanassa nimittäin 30 prosenttia kunnanvaltuutetuista nimitetään tehtäväänsä. Lopulta tutkimuksessa analysoidaan nimitettyjen ja vaaleilla valittujen naisvaltuutettujen mahdollisuuksia edustaa halutessaan naisten intressejä. Hon kunnanvaltuuston tapaus oli erittäin kiinnostava, sillä vuonna 2006 naisten osuus kunnanvaltuutetuista nousi 35,7 prosenttiin. Aiemmin naisia oli ollut valtuustossa huomattavasti vähemmän. Tutkimusta varten tehtiin kenttätyötä Ghanassa. Tutkimus perustuu 16 Hon kunnanvaltuutetun haastatteluun ja kunnan pormestarin kanssa käytyyn keskusteluun. Kartoitan Hon kunnanvaltuuston naisvaltuutettujen toimintaan vaikuttavia tekijöitä ja naisedustajien työssä kohtaamia esteitä sekä naisvaltuutettujen omien kokemusten että miespuolisten kunnanvaltuutettujen näkemysten kautta. Tutkimustulokset osoittivat, että naisvaltuutetut kohtasivat työssään monia haasteita. Moni esteistä oli yhdistettävissä toimimattomiin rakenteisiin, miehisiin normeihin ja käytäntöihin sekä toisaalta naisten miehiä huonompaan sosiaaliseen asemaan. Esimerkiksi liikkuminen vaalialueella ja jopa kokouksiin saapuminen olijoillekin naisille suuri haaste. Myös paikallisten ihmisten vaatimukset saada henkilökohtaista rahallista hyötyä valtuutetuilta nousivat esiin naisten esteenä. Toisaalta näkemysten esittäminen kokouksissa vaikutti naisille ongelmalliselta eli huomio kiinnittyi naisten poliittiseen kokemattomuuteen sekä valtuuston institutionaaliseen kulttuuriin. Nimitettyjen naisten asema kunnanvaltuustossa paljastui erilaiseksi kuin vaaleilla valittujen naisedustajien. Nimitettyjen edustajien järjestelmä, jota on perusteltu mahdollisuutena lisätä naisten intressien edustusta paikallishallinnossa, näyttäytyi tutkimusten tulosten perusteella kyseenalaisena keinona lisätä naisten edustusta paikallishallinnossa. Nimitettyjä valtuutettuja ei esimerkiksi nähty legitiimeinä ihmisten edustajina paikallishallinnossa vaan heidän katsottiin edistävän puolueensa intressejä, ei paikallisten ihmisten. Nimitettyjen edustajien järjestelmä myös paljastui paikalliselle poliittiselle eliitille suosiolliseksi järjestelmäksi valita kiintiön kautta edustajiksi itselleen, ei paikallisille ihmisille tai paikallisille naisille, sopivia edustajia.

Evaluación ex-ante del mejoramiento de los sistemas de producción ganadero de doble propósito a través de inversiones propuestas por los mismos ganaderos en la zona de Muy Muy, Matagalpa

El presente trabajo se realizó con el objetivo de evaluar exante la factibilidad técnica y financiera de inversiones propuestas por los mismos ganaderos en la zona de Muy muy, Matagalpa. El estudio se llevó a cabo en dos fases: Una fase preliminar de diagnóstico, en la que se determinó, la disponibilidad y uso actual de los recursos en las fincas, así como las propuestas planteadas por los productores, comprendiéndose en una sub-fase de ésta etapa preliminar un diagnóstico de las características generales de los canales de comercialización y precios de los productos agropecuarios generados por la actividad ganadera de la zona. La segunda fase comprendió el procesamiento y computación de la información. La información relativa a los recursos, se procesó para cada una de las fincas y en base a ello, se estimaron los diferentes parámetros técnicos y elementos fuentes de ingresos y egresos, elaborándose también las diferentes proyecciones de hato por finca, así mismo de disponibilidades de pastos, mano de obra e insumos. Para efectos de analizar tanto el uso eficiente de las pasturas como de los resultados financieros, las fincas se agruparon en cuatro dominios de recomendación en función de sus áreas. En los aspectos técnicos se determinó que la actividad de las fincas es la ganadería ya que en promedio, el 82.33% de las áreas totales por finca se destina a esta actividad, ocupando los pastos mejorados en promedio el 67.44% y un promedio de 32.56% los pastos naturales. Con el proyecto el área ganadera se incrementa en un promedio de 2.46%, pasando a representar los pastos mejorados un promedio de 92.65% y el natural el 7.35%, reduciéndose éste último en un promedio de 25.21%. Las cargas animales encontradas fluctuaron en un rango de 18.6 U.A./mz. a 268.3 U.A./mz. siendo éste en cinco de las nueve fincas superiores a las disponibilidades que resultan por tanto negativas en un rango de -36.3 a -3.8 U.A., con el proyecto las cargas animales se incrementan a valores comprendidos entre 54.2 y 456.5 U.A., resultando sin embargo las disponibilidades positivas en seis de las nueve fincas para el año décimo del proyecto en un rango comprendido entre +2.5 a +16.2 U.A., a excepción de tres fincas en las cuales los déficit reflejan valores entre -2.6 y -43.1 U.A. En lo que se refiere a los niveles de eficiencia en el aprovechamiento de las pasturas, las fincas La Palma y El Castaño resultaron ser las más eficientes, manteniendo sus niveles de aprovechamiento próximo al nivel óptimo de manera en periodo de años más prolongados. El número de cabezas de ganado encontrado por finca, fluctuó entre 20 y 290, como efecto de los proyectos el hato total tendría un incremento promedio anual de 7.5%, es decir 10.58 cabezas por año. La natalidad encontrada en promedio fue mortalidad de terneros 7.04%, descarte de vacas de 50.8%, 10.72% y relación vaca-toro 19:1. Para el año décimo de los los promedios de estos coeficientes alcanzan: 53.1%, mortalidad de terneros 4.46% y descarte de 19.55%. proyectos natalidad vientres. La edad de incorporación de vaquillas resultó entre 2.5 a 3 años. En la composición racial se encontró que predomina un alto encastamiento con razas europeas. La relación producción total por área en el año base resultó en promedio de 42.53 galones de leche/manzana y 52.68 kilogramos de carne manzana y para el ultimo año de los proyectos alcanzan en promedio los 67.56 galones de leche/manzana y 96.14 kilogramos de carne/manzana. La producción promedio de leche por época correspondió a 4 litros/vaca/día en el verano y 6 litros/vaca/día en invierno. Partiendo del promedio de éstos valores, el incremento anual de ésta producción con el proyecto alcanzarla en promedio el 7.3%. En el aspecto de ingresos en promedio la producción de leche aporta en el año base el 43.44%, la producción de carne 34.09%, la venta de otras categorías 12.5% y la agricultura el 9.95% de los ingresos totales. con el proyecto se presenta una recomposición en éstos, de manera que el aporte de la producción de leche alcanza el 46.99%, el de la carne 46.67% y la parte agrícola el 5.25%. En los gastos, en el año base en promedio, la mano de obra representa el mayor porcentaje con 54.63%, medios circulantes y servicios 37.94%, impuestos 7.4%, variando éstos para el año décimo a promedios de: 48.25%, 42.54% y 9.17% respectivamente, reflejándose un incremento en los gastos de medios circulantes y servicios en un promedio de 4.6% y 1.77% los gastos en impuestos. Los costos de producción por litro de leche en el año base, fluctuaron entre C$1.23 y C$1.61 y en el último año varian ligeramente a un rango entre C$0.87 y C$1.53. En el mercado de aspecto la leche de comercialización, el control del en el municipio está en posesión de los manteros, un segundo siendo la agente de Unión de Cooperativas de Boaco (UCASBO) importancia en la comercialización. En el caso de la carne, los mayores volúmenes de ganado comercializado es controlado por los comerciantes intermediarios, que en los años 1990 y 1992 extrajeron de la zona 6000 y 8000 cabezas respectivamente. En el fluctuaron aspecto de los precios, en el caso de la leche con la estacionalidad de la producción C$0.95 en invierno manteros) tipo A y UCASBO). el peso, con pesos y C$1.00 en el verano (al comercializar con y por calidad de la leche entregada C$1.375 leche tipo A y By C$1.12 para el tipo e (al comercializar con las El ganado en cambio, su precio está determinado por obteniéndose C$1,500.00 y C$1,600.00 por novillos de 380 y 420 kilogramos respectivamente. De las inversiones a realizarse, la adquisición de ganado representa el mayor porcentaje con un 49.67%, las instalaciones y equipos con un 29.02% y mejoramiento de pastizales con 21.31% del monto total propuesto equivalente a C$829,400.00, de los cuales el total solicitado representa el 76.68% equivalente a C$636,000.00. Para el análisis financiero, se utilizó el formato y metodología del Banco Mundial. Los resultados de rentabilidad de éste análisis al interés propuesto del 9% ocupan un rango entre 21.78 y 9.10%, relación inversión­ beneficio neto entre 2.2 y 1.07. Con el interés bancario del 12.5%, los resultados pasan a .ocupar valores de TIR entre 16.2% y 7.85% y la relación inversión-beneficio neto alcanza valores entre 1.93 y 0.98. Con la utilización de recursos propios los resultados son inferiores a los obtenidos con el 9% de interés en siete de las nueve fincas y superiores que los resultados logrados con el interés del 12.5%, siendo los valores extremos de las TIR encontradas de 18.42% y 10.19%. En el aspecto de sensibilidad, al incrementarse los gastos operativos en un 10%, el proyecto de la finca La Perla resulta ser el más sensible con el interés del 9%, alcanzando una TIR de 1.04% y un VAN negativo de C$-21,503.08. En la correlación inversión-rentabilidad, las inversiones en ganado ejercieron la mejor influencia, seguida de las inversiones en pastos, fundamentalmente cuando éstas van acompañadas de una alta tasa de parición. Los flujos de efectivos encontrados, resultaron con fuertes déficit a excepción de la finca San Felipe que presentó una situación menos desfavorable. Los déficit encontrado hacen que los proyectos de éstas fincas aún y cuando sean rentables, no sean factibles, al no tener disponibilidades de efectivo para el sostenimiento de las unidades familiares durante los primeros años de proyecto.