Neural network based glucose - insulin metabolism models for children with Type 1 diabetes

In this paper two models for the simulation of glucose-insulin metabolism of children with Type 1 diabetes are presented. The models are based on the combined use of Compartmental Models (CMs) and artificial Neural Networks (NNs). Data from children with Type 1 diabetes, stored in a database, have been used as input to the models. The data are taken from four children with Type 1 diabetes and contain information about glucose levels taken from continuous glucose monitoring system, insulin intake and food intake, along with corresponding time. The influences of taken insulin on plasma insulin concentration, as well as the effect of food intake on glucose input into the blood from the gut, are estimated from the CMs. The outputs of CMs, along with previous glucose measurements, are fed to a NN, which provides short-term prediction of glucose values. For comparative reasons two different NN architectures have been tested: a Feed-Forward NN (FFNN) trained with the back-propagation algorithm with adaptive learning rate and momentum, and a Recurrent NN (RNN), trained with the Real Time Recurrent Learning (RTRL) algorithm. The results indicate that the best prediction performance can be achieved by the use of RNN.

Verb generation in children with spina bifida.

We investigated verb generation in children with spina bifida meningomyelocele (SBM; n = 55) and in typically developing controls (n = 32). Participants completed 6 blocks (40 trials each) of a task requiring them to produce a semantically related verb in response to a target noun and an additional 40 trials on which they were simply required to read target nouns aloud. After controlling for reading response time, groups did not differ significantly in verb generation response time or learning. Children with SBM produced more non-verb errors than controls and tended to repeat their mistakes over blocks. Verb generation performance was associated with brain volume measures in participants with SBM. Congenital cerebellar dysmorphology is associated with impaired performance in verb generation accuracy, although not with increased response times to produce verbs

The Nature of Scientific Proof in the Age of Simulations. Is numerical mimicry a third way of establishing truth?

Is numerical mimicry a third way of establishing truth? Kevin Heng received his M.S. and Ph.D. in astrophysics from the Joint Institute for Laboratory Astrophysics (JILA) and the University of Colorado at Boulder. He joined the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton from 2007 to 2010, first as a Member and later as the Frank & Peggy Taplin Member. From 2010 to 2012 he was a Zwicky Prize Fellow at ETH Z¨urich (the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology). In 2013, he joined the Center for Space and Habitability (CSH) at the University of Bern, Switzerland, as a tenure-track assistant professor, where he leads the Exoplanets and Exoclimes Group. He has worked on, and maintains, a broad range of interests in astrophysics: shocks, extrasolar asteroid belts, planet formation, fluid dynamics, brown dwarfs and exoplanets. He coordinates the Exoclimes Simulation Platform (ESP), an open-source set of theoretical tools designed for studying the basic physics and chemistry of exoplanetary atmospheres and climates (www.exoclime.org). He is involved in the CHEOPS (Characterizing Exoplanet Satellite) space telescope, a mission approved by the European Space Agency (ESA) and led by Switzerland. He spends a fair amount of time humbly learning the lessons gleaned from studying the Earth and Solar System planets, as related to him by atmospheric, climate and planetary scientists. He received a Sigma Xi Grant-in-Aid of Research in 2006

Assessment of readiness to initiate antiretroviral therapy

An important factor in determining a patient's adherence to antiretroviral therapy is the patient's commitment to follow the regimen. This suggests that therapy should be initiated when the patient is willing to commit to the regimen. Starting when the patient is ready may be more important than the laboratory values suggested by various guidelines. In order to increase understanding of patient readiness for antiretroviral therapy HIV infected patients were surveyed to determine the factors that influenced their decision to initiate antiretroviral therapy and to continue to adhere to therapy once started. A sample of 83 HIV infected patients who were currently on antiretroviral regimens completed a 25-item investigator-developed questionnaire. The questionnaire sought information on the length of time from learning of HIV positive status and readiness to initiate therapy. The questionnaire also addressed demographic, psychological and social factors thought to be associated with readiness for adhering to therapy. (Abstract shortened by UMI.)^

Integration of socioeconomic and genetic aspects involved in the conservation of animal genetic resources = Integración de aspectos socioeconómicos y genéticos involucrados en la conservación de recursos genéticos animales

El sector ganadero está siendo gradualmente dominado por sistemas intensivos y especializados en los que los factores de producción están controlados y en los que los caracteres productivos son los criterios principales para la selección de especies y razas. Entretanto, muchos de los bienes y servicios que tradicionalmente suministraba el ganado, tales como los fertilizantes, la tracción animal o materias primas para la elaboración vestimenta y calzado están siendo reemplazados por productos industriales. Como consecuencia de ambos cambios, las razas seleccionadas intensivamente, las cuales están estrechamente ligadas a sistemas agrícolas de alta producción y altos insumos, han desplazado a muchas razas autóctonas, en las que la selección prácticamente ha cesado o es muy poco intensa. Actualmente existe una mayor conciencia social sobre la situación de las razas autóctonas y muchas funciones del ganado que previamente habían sido ignoradas están siendo reconocidas. Desde hace algunas décadas, se ha aceptado internacionalmente que las razas de ganado cumplen funciones económicas, socio-culturales, medioambientales y de seguridad alimentaria. Por ello, diferentes organismos internacionales han reconocido que la disminución de los recursos genéticos de animales domésticos (RGADs) es un problema grave y han recomendado su conservación. Aun así, la conservación de RGADs es un tema controvertido por la dificultad de valorar las funciones del ganado. Esta valoración es compleja debido que los RGADs tiene una doble naturaleza privada - pública. Como algunos economistas han subrayado, el ganado es un bien privado, sin embargo debido a algunas de sus funciones, también es un bien público. De esta forma, el aumento del conocimiento sobre valor de cada una de sus funciones facilitaría la toma de decisiones en relación a su conservación y desarrollo. Sin embargo, esta valoración es controvertida puesto que la importancia relativa de las funciones del ganado varía en función del momento, del lugar, de las especies y de las razas. El sector ganadero, debido a sus múltiples funciones, está influenciado por factores técnicos, medioambientales, sociales, culturales y políticos que están interrelacionados y que engloban a una enorme variedad de actores y procesos. Al igual que las funciones del ganado, los factores que afectan a su conservación y desarrollo están fuertemente condicionados por localización geográfica. Asimismo, estos factores pueden ser muy heterogéneos incluso dentro de una misma raza. Por otro lado, es razonable pensar que el ganadero es el actor principal de la conservación de razas locales. Actualmente, las razas locales están siendo Integration of socioeconomic and genetic aspects involved in the conservation of animal genetic resources 5 explotadas por ganaderos muy diversos bajo sistemas de producción también muy diferentes. Por todo ello, es de vital importancia comprender y evaluar el impacto que tienen las motivaciones, y el proceso de toma de decisiones de los ganaderos en la estructura genética de las razas. En esta tesis doctoral exploramos diferentes aspectos sociales, económicos y genéticos involucrados en la conservación de razas locales de ganado vacuno en Europa, como ejemplo de RGADs, esperando contribuir al entendimiento científico de este complejo tema. Nuestro objetivo es conseguir una visión global de los procesos subyacentes en la conservación y desarrollo de estas razas. Pretendemos ilustrar como se pueden utilizar métodos cuantitativos en el diseño y establecimiento de estrategias de conservación y desarrollo de RGADs objetivas y adecuadas. En primer lugar, exploramos el valor económico total (VET) del ganado analizando sus componentes públicos fuera de mercado usando como caso de estudio la raza vacuna Alistana-Sanabresa (AS). El VET de cualquier bien está formado por componentes de uso y de no-uso. Estos últimos incluyen el valor de opción, el valor de herencia y el valor de existencia. En el caso del ganado local, el valor de uso directo proviene de sus productos. Los valores de uso indirecto están relacionados con el papel que cumple las razas en el mantenimiento de los paisajes y cultura rural. El valor de opción se refiere a su futuro uso potencial y el valor de herencia al uso potencial de las generaciones venideras. Finalmente, el valor de existencia está relacionado con el bienestar que produce a la gente saber que existe un recurso específico. Nuestro objetivo fue determinar la importancia relativa que tienen los componentes fuera de mercado sobre el VET de la raza AS. Para ello evaluamos la voluntad de la gente a pagar por la conservación de la AS mediante experimentos de elección (EEs) a través de encuestas. Estos experimentos permiten valorar individualmente los distintos componentes del VET de cualquier bien. Los resultados los analizamos mediante de uso de modelos aleatorios logit. Encontramos que las funciones públicas de la raza AS tienen un valor significativo. Sus valores más importantes son el valor de uso indirecto como elemento cultural Zamorano y el valor de existencia (ambos representaron el 80% de VET). Además observamos que el valor que gente da a las funciones públicas de la razas de ganado dependen de sus características socioeconómicas. Los factores que condicionaron la voluntad a pagar para la conservación de la raza AS fueron el lugar de residencia (ciudad o pueblo), el haber visto animales de la raza o haber consumido sus productos y la actitud de los encuestados ante los conflictos entre el desarrollo económico y el medioambiente. Por otro lado, encontramos que no todo el mundo tiene una visión completa e integrada de todas las funciones públicas de la raza AS. Por este motivo, los programas o actividades de concienciación sobre su estado deberían hacer hincapié en este aspecto. La existencia de valores públicos de la raza AS implica que los ganaderos deberían recibir compensaciones económicas como pago por las funciones públicas que cumple su raza local. Las compensaciones asegurarían un tamaño de población que permitiría que la raza AS siga realizando estas funciones. Un mecanismo para ello podría ser el desarrollo del turismo rural relacionado con la raza. Esto aumentaría el valor de uso privado mientras que supondría un elemento añadido a las estrategias de conservación y desarrollo. No obstante, los ganaderos deben analizar cómo aprovechar los nichos de mercado existentes, así como mejorar la calidad de los productos de la raza prestando especial atención al etiquetado de los mismos. Una vez evaluada la importancia de las funciones públicas de las razas locales de ganado, analizamos la diversidad de factores técnicos, económicos y sociales de la producción de razas locales de ganado vacuno existente en Europa. Con este fin analizamos el caso de quince razas locales de ocho países en el contexto de un proyecto de colaboración internacional. Investigamos las diferencias entre los países para determinar los factores comunes clave que afectan a la viabilidad de las razas locales. Para ello entrevistamos mediante cuestionarios a un total de 355 ganaderos en las quince razas. Como indicador de viabilidad usamos los planes de los ganaderos de variación del tamaño de las ganaderías. Los cuestionarios incluían diferentes aspectos económicos, técnicos y sociales con potencial influencia en las dinámicas demográficas de las razas locales. Los datos recogidos los analizamos mediante distintas técnicas estadísticas multivariantes como el análisis discriminante y la regresión logística. Encontramos que los factores que afectan a la viabilidad de las razas locales en Europa son muy heterogéneos. Un resultado reseñable fue que los ganaderos de algunos países no consideran que la explotación de su raza tenga un alto valor social. Este hecho vuelve a poner de manifiesto la importancia de desarrollar programas Europeos de concienciación sobre la importancia de las funciones que cumplen las razas locales. Además los países analizados presentaron una alta variabilidad en cuanto a la importancia de los mercados locales en la distribución de los productos y en cuanto al porcentaje en propiedad del total de los pastos usados en las explotaciones. Este estudio reflejó la variabilidad de los sistemas y medios de producción (en el sentido socioeconómico, técnico y ecológico) que existe en Europa. Por ello hay que ser cautos en la implementación de las políticas comunes en los diferentes países. También encontramos que la variabilidad dentro de los países puede ser elevada debido a las diferencias entre razas, lo que implica que las políticas nacionales deber ser suficientemente flexibles para adaptarse a las peculiaridades de cada una de las razas. Por otro lado, encontramos una serie de factores comunes a la viabilidad de las razas en los distintos países; la edad de los ganaderos, la colaboración entre ellos y la apreciación social de las funciones culturales, medioambientales y sociales del ganado local. El envejecimiento de los ganaderos de razas locales no es solo un problema de falta de transferencia generacional, sino que también puede suponer una actitud más negativa hacia la inversión en las actividades ganaderas y en una menor capacidad de adaptación a los cambios del sector. La capacidad de adaptación de los ganaderos es un factor crucial en la viabilidad de las razas locales. Las estrategias y políticas de conservación comunes deben incluir las variables comunes a la viabilidad de las razas manteniendo flexibilidad suficiente para adaptarse a las especificidades nacionales. Estas estrategias y políticas deberían ir más allá de compensación económica a los ganaderos de razas locales por la menor productividad de sus razas. Las herramientas para la toma de decisiones ayudan a generar una visión amplia de la conservación y desarrollo de las razas locales. Estas herramientas abordan el diseño de estrategias de conservación y desarrollo de forma sistemática y estructurada. En la tercera parte de la tesis usamos una de estas herramientas, el análisis DAFO (Debilidades, Amenazas, Fortalezas y Oportunidades), con este propósito, reconociendo que la conservación de RGADs depende de los ganaderos. Desarrollamos un análisis DAFO cuantitativo y lo aplicamos a trece razas locales de ganado vacuno de seis países europeos en el contexto del proyecto de colaboración mencionado anteriormente. El método tiene cuatro pasos: 1) la definición del sistema; 2) la identificación y agrupación de los factores influyentes; 3) la cuantificación de la importancia de dichos factores y 4) la identificación y priorización de estrategias. Identificamos los factores utilizando multitud de agentes (multi-stakeholder appproach). Una vez determinados los factores se agruparon en una estructura de tres niveles. La importancia relativa de los cada uno de los factores para cada raza fue determinada por grupos de expertos en RGADs de los países integrados en el citado proyecto. Finalmente, desarrollamos un proceso de cuantificación para identificar y priorizar estrategias. La estructura de agrupación de factores permitió analizar el problema de la conservación desde el nivel general hasta el concreto. La unión de análisis específicos de cada una de las razas en un análisis DAFO común permitió evaluar la adecuación de las estrategias a cada caso concreto. Identificamos un total de 99 factores. El análisis reveló que mientras los factores menos importantes son muy consistentes entre razas, los factores y estrategias más relevantes son muy heterogéneos. La idoneidad de las estrategias fue mayor a medida que estas se hacían más generales. A pesar de dicha heterogeneidad, los factores influyentes y estrategias más importantes estaban ligados a aspectos positivos (fortalezas y oportunidades) lo que implica que el futuro de estas razas es prometedor. Los resultados de nuestro análisis también confirmaron la gran relevancia del valor cultural de estas razas. Las factores internos (fortalezas y debilidades) más importantes estaban relacionadas con los sistemas de producción y los ganaderos. Las oportunidades más relevantes estaban relacionadas con el desarrollo y marketing de nuevos productos mientras que las amenazas más importantes se encontraron a la hora de vender los productos actuales. Este resultado implica que sería fructífero trabajar en la motivación y colaboración entre ganaderos así como, en la mejora de sus capacidades. Concluimos que las políticas comunes europeas deberían centrarse en aspectos generales y ser los suficientemente flexibles para adaptarse a las singularidades de los países y las razas. Como ya se ha mencionado, los ganaderos juegan un papel esencial en la conservación y desarrollo de las razas autóctonas. Por ello es relevante entender que implicación puede tener la heterogeneidad de los mismos en la viabilidad de una raza. En la cuarta parte de la tesis hemos identificado tipos de ganaderos con el fin de entender cómo la relación entre la variabilidad de sus características socioeconómicas, los perfiles de las ganaderías y las dinámicas de las mismas. El análisis se ha realizado en un contexto sociológico, aplicando los conceptos de capital cultural y económico. Las tipologías se han determinado en función de factores socioeconómicos y culturales indicadores del capital cultural y capital económico de un individuo. Nuestro objetivo era estudiar si la tipología socioeconómica de los ganaderos afecta al perfil de su ganadería y a las decisiones que toman. Entrevistamos a 85 ganaderos de la raza Avileña-Negra Ibérica (ANI) y utilizamos los resultados de dichas entrevistas para ilustrar y testar el proceso. Definimos los tipos de ganaderos utilizando un análisis de clúster jerarquizado con un grupo de variables canónicas que se obtuvieron en función de cinco factores socioeconómicos: el nivel de educación del ganadero, el año en que empezó a ser ganadero de ANI, el porcentaje de los ingresos familiares que aporta la ganadería, el porcentaje de propiedad de la tierra de la explotación y la edad del ganadero. La tipología de los ganaderos de ANI resultó ser más compleja que en el pasado. Los resultados indicaron que los tipos de ganaderos variaban en muchos aspectos socioeconómicos y en los perfiles de sus Integration of socioeconomic and genetic aspects involved in the conservation of animal genetic resources 9 ganaderías. Los tipos de ganaderos determinados toman diferentes decisiones en relación a la modificación del tamaño de su ganadería y a sus objetivos de selección. Por otro lado, reaccionaron de forma diferente ante un hipotético escenario de reducción de las compensaciones económicas que les planteamos. En este estudio hemos visto que el capital cultural y el económico interactúan y hemos explicado como lo hacen en los distintos tipos de ganaderos. Por ejemplo, los ganaderos que poseían un mayor capital económico, capital cultural formal y capital cultural adquirido sobre la raza, eran los ganaderos cuyos animales tenían una mayor demanda por parte de otros ganaderos, lo cual podría responder a su mayor prestigio social dentro de la raza. Uno de los elementos claves para el futuro de la raza es si este prestigio responde a una superioridad genética de las animales. Esto ocurriría si los ganaderos utilizaran las herramientas que tienen a su disposición a la hora de seleccionar animales. Los tipos de ganaderos identificados mostraron también claras diferencias en sus formas de colaboración y en su reacción a una hipotética variación de las compensaciones económicas. Aunque algunos tipos de ganaderos mostraron un bajo nivel de dependencia a estas compensaciones, la mayoría se manifestaron altamente dependientes. Por ello cualquier cambio drástico en la política de ayudas puede comprometer el desarrollo de las razas autóctonas. La adaptación las políticas de compensaciones económicas a la heterogeneidad de los ganaderos podría aumentar la eficacia de las mismas por lo que sería interesante explorar posibilidades a este respecto. Concluimos destacando la necesidad de desarrollar políticas que tengan en cuenta la heterogeneidad de los ganaderos. Finalmente abordamos el estudio de la estructura genética de poblaciones ganaderas. Las decisiones de los ganaderos en relación a la selección de sementales y su número de descendientes configuran la estructura demográfica y genética de las razas. En la actualidad existe un interés renovado por estudiar las estructuras poblacionales debido a la influencia potencial de su estratificación sobre la predicción de valores genómicos y/o los análisis de asociación a genoma completo. Utilizamos dos métodos distintos, un algoritmo de clústeres basados en teoría de grafos (GCA) y un algoritmo de clustering bayesiano (STRUCTURE) para estudiar la estructura genética de la raza ANI. Prestamos especial atención al efecto de la presencia de parientes cercanos en la población y de la diferenciación genética entre subpoblaciones sobre el análisis de la estructura de la población. En primer lugar evaluamos el comportamiento de los dos algoritmos en poblaciones simuladas para posteriormente analizar los genotipos para 17 microsatélites de 13343 animales de 57 ganaderías distintas de raza ANI. La ANI es un ejemplo de raza con relaciones complejas. Por otro lado, utilizamos el archivo de pedigrí de la raza para estudiar el flujo de genes, calculando, entre otras cosas, la contribución de cada ganadería a la constitución genética de la raza. En el caso de las poblaciones simuladas, cuando el FST entre subpoblaciones fue suficientemente alto, ambos algoritmos, GCA y STRUCTURE, identificaron la misma estructura genética independientemente de que existieran o no relaciones familiares. Por el contrario, cuando el grado de diferenciación entre poblaciones fue bajo, el STRUCTURE identificó la estructura familiar mientras que GCA no permitió obtener ningún resultado concluyente. El GCA resultó ser un algoritmo más rápido y eficiente para de inferir la estructura genética en poblaciones con relaciones complejas. Este algoritmo también puede ser usado para reducir el número de clústeres a testar con el STRUTURE. En cuanto al análisis de la población de ANI, ambos algoritmos describieron la misma estructura, lo cual sugiere que los resultados son robustos. Se identificaron tres subpoblaciones diferenciadas que pudieran corresponderse con tres linajes distintos. Estos linajes estarían directamente relacionados con las ganaderías que han tenido una mayor contribución a la constitución genética de la raza. Por otro lado, hay un conjunto muy numeroso de individuos con una mezcla de orígenes. La información molecular describe una estructura estratificada de la población que se corresponde con la evolución demográfica de la raza. Es esencial analizar en mayor profundidad la composición de este último grupo de animales para determinar cómo afecta a la variabilidad genética de la población de ANI. SUMMARY Summary Livestock sector is gradually dominated by intensive and specialized systems where the production environment is controlled and the production traits are the main criteria for the selection of species and breeds. In the meantime, the traditional use of domestic animals for draught work, clothes and manure has been replaced by industrial products. As a consequence of both these changes, the intensively selected breeds closely linked with high-input highoutput production systems have displaced many native breeds where the selection has practically ceased or been very mild. People are now more aware of the state of endangerment among the native breeds and the previously ignored values of livestock are gaining recognition. For some decades now, the economic, socio-cultural, environmental and food security function of livestock breeds have been accepted worldwide and their loss has been recognized as a major problem. Therefore, the conservation of farm animal genetic resources (FAnGR) has been recommended. The conservation of FAnGR is controversial due to the complexity of the evaluation of its functions. This evaluation is difficult due to the nature of FAnGR both as private and public good. As some economists have highlighted, livestock animals are private goods, however, they are also public goods by their functions. Therefore, there is a need to increase the knowledge about the value of all livestock functions since to support the decision-making for the sustainable conservation and breeding of livestock. This is not straightforward since the relative importance of livestock functions depends on time, place, species and breed. Since livestock play a variety of roles, their production is driven by interrelated and everchanging economic, technical, environmental, social, cultural and political elements involving an enormous range of stakeholders. Not only FAnGR functions but also the importance of factors affecting the development and conservation of FAnGR can be very different across geographical areas. Furthermore, heterogeneity can be found even within breeds. Local breeds are nowadays raised by highly diverse farmers in equally diverse farms. It is quite reasonable to think that farmer is the major actor in the in situ conservation of livestock breeds. Thus, there is a need to understand the farmers’ motivations, decision making processes and the impact of their decisions on the genetic structure of breeds. In this PhD thesis we explore different social, economic and genetic aspects involved in the conservation of local cattle breeds, i.e. FAnGR, in Europe seeking to contribute to the scientific understanding of this complex issue. We aim to achieve a comprehensive view of the processes involved in the conservation and development of local cattle breeds and have made special efforts in discussing the implications of the research results in this respect. The final outcome of the thesis is to illustrate how quantitative methods can be exploited in designing and establishing sound strategies and programmes for the conservation and development of local livestock breeds. Firstly we explored the public non-market attributes of the total economic value (TEV) of livestock, using the Spanish Alistana-Sanabresa (AS) cattle breed as a case study. Total economic value of any good comprises both use and non-use components, where the latter include option, bequest and existence values. For livestock, the direct use values are mainly stemming from production outputs. Indirect use values relate to the role of livestock as a maintainer of rural culture and landscape. The option value is related to the potential use of livestock, the bequest values relate to the value associated with the inheritance of the resources to future generation and the existence values relate to the utility perceived by people from knowing that specific resources exist. We aimed to determine the relative importance of the non-market components of the TEV of the AS breed, the socio-economic variables that influence how people value the different components of TEV and to assess the implications of the Spanish national conservation strategy for the AS breed. To do so, we used a choice experiment (CE) approach and applied the technique to assess people’s willingness to pay (WTP) for the conservation of AS breed. The use of CE allows the valuation of the individual components of TEV for a given good. We analysed the choice data using a random parameter logit (RPL) model. AS breed was found to have a significant public good value. Its most important values were related to the indirect use value due to the maintenance of Zamorian culture and the existence value (both represent over 80% of its TEV). There were several socioeconomic variables influencing people’s valuation of the public service of the breed. In the case of AS breed, the place of living (city or rural area), having seen animals of the breed, having eaten breed products and the respondents’ attitude towards economic development – environment conflicts do influence people’s WTP for AS conservation. We also found that people do not have a complete picture of all the functions and roles that AS breed as AnGR. Therefore, the actions for increasing awareness of AS should go to that direction. The farmers will need incentives to exploit some of the public goods values and maintain the breed population size at socially desirable levels. One such mechanism could be related to the development of agritourism, which would enhance the private good value and provide an important addition to the conservation and utilisation strategy. However, the farmers need a serious evaluation on how to invest in niche product development or how to improve product quality and brand recognition. Using the understanding on the importance of the public function of local cattle we tried to depict the current diversity regarding technical, economic and social factors found in local cattle farming across Europe. To do so we focused in an international collaborative project on the case of fifteen local cattle breeds in eight European countries. We investigated the variation among the countries to detect the common key elements, which affect the viability of local breeds. We surveyed with interviews a total of 355 farms across the fifteen breeds. We used the planned herd size changes by the farmer as an indicator of breed viability. The questionnaire included several economic, technical and social aspects with potential influence on breeds’ demographic trends. We analysed the data using multivariate statistical techniques, such as discriminat analysis and logistic regression. The factors affecting a local breed’s viability were highly heterogeneous across Europe. In some countries, farmers did not recognise any high social value attached to keeping a local cattle breed. Hence there is a need to develop communication programmes across EU countries making people aware about the diversity and importance of values associated to raising local breeds. The countries were also very variable regarding the importance of local markets and the percentage of farm land owned by the farmers. Despite the country specificities, there were also common factors affecting the breed viability across Europe. The factors were from different grounds, from social, such as the age of the farmer and the social appreciation of their work, to technicalorganizational, such as the farmers’ attitude to collaborating with each other. The heterogeneity found reflects the variation in breeding systems and production environment (in the socioeconomic, technical and ecological sense) present in Europe. Therefore, caution should be taken in implementing common policies at the country level. Variability could also be rather high within countries due to breed specificities. Therefore, the national policies should be flexible to adapt to the specificities. The variables significantly associated with breed viability should be positively incorporated in the conservation strategies, and considered in developing common and/or national policies. The strategy preparation and policy planning should go beyond the provision of a general economic support to compensate farmers for the lower profitability of local breeds. Of particular interest is the observation that the opportunity for farmer collaboration and the appreciation by the society of the cultural, environmental and social role of local cattle farming were positively associated with the breed survival. In addition, farmer's high age is not only a problem of poor generation transfer but it is also a problem because it might lead to a lower attitude to investing in farming activities and to a lower ability to adapt to environment changes. The farmers’ adaptation capability may be a key point for the viability of local breeds. Decision making tools can help to get a comprehensive view on the conservation and development of local breeds. It allows us to use a systematic and structured approach for identifying and prioritizing conservation and development strategies. We used SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses Opportunities and Threats) analysis for this purpose and recognized that many conservation and development projects rely on farmers. We developed a quantified SWOT method and applied it in the aforementioned collaborative research to a set of thirteen cattle breeds in six European countries. The method has four steps: definition of the system, identification and grouping of the driving factors, quantification of the importance of driving factors and identification and prioritization of the strategies. The factors were determined following a multi-stakeholder approach and grouped with a three level structure. FAnGR expert groups ranked the factors and a quantification process was implemented to identify and prioritize strategies. The structure of the SWOT analysis allowed analyzing the conservation problem from general down to specific perspectives. Joining breed specific analyses into a common SWOT analysis permitted comparison of breed cases across countries. We identified 99 driving factors across breeds. The across breed analysis revealed that irrelevant factors were consistent. There was high heterogeneity among the most relevant factors and strategies. The strategies increased eligibility as they lost specificity. Although the situation was very heterogeneous, the most promising factors and strategies were linked to the positive aspects (Strengths and Opportunities). Therefore, the future of the studied local breed is promising. The results of our analysis also confirmed the high relevance of the cultural value of the breeds. The most important internal factors (strengths and weaknesses) were related farmers and production systems. The most important opportunities were found in developing and marketing new products, while the most relevant threats were found in selling the current conventional products. In this regard, it should be fruitful to work on farmers’ motivation, collaboration, and capacity building. We conclude that European policies should focus on general aspects and be flexible enough to be adapted to the country and breed specificities. As mentioned, farmers have a key role in the conservation and development of a local cattle breed. Therefore, it is very relevant to understand the implications of farmer heterogeneity within a breed for its viability. In the fourth part of the thesis, we developed a general farmer typology to help analyzing the relations between farmer features and farm profiles, herd dynamics and farmers’ decision making. In the analysis we applied and used the sociological framework of economic and cultural capital and studied how the determined farmer types were linked to farm profiles and breeding decisions, among others. The typology was based on measurable socioeconomic factors indicating the economic and cultural capital of farmers. A group of 85 farmers raising the Spanish Avileña-Negra Ibérica (ANI) local cattle breed was used to illustrate and test the procedure. The farmer types were defined by a hierarchical cluster analysis with a set of canonical variables derived from the following five the socioeconomic factors: the formal educational level of the farmer, the year the farmer started keeping the ANI breed, the percentage of the total family income covered by the farm, the percentage of the total farm land owned by the farmer and the farmer’s age. The present ANI farmer types were much more complex than what they were in the past. We found that the farmer types differed in many socioeconomic aspects and in the farms profile. Furthermore, the types also differentiate farmers with respect to decisions about changing the farm size, breeding aims and stated reactions towards hypothetical subsidy variation. We have verified that economic and cultural capitals are not independent and further showed how they are interacting in the different farmer types. The farmers related to the types with high economic, institutionalized and embodied cultural capitals had a higher demand of breeding animals from others farmers of the breed, which may be related to the higher social prestige within the breed. One of the key implications of this finding for the future of the breed is whether or not the prestige of farmers is related to genetic superiority of their animals, what is to say, that it is related with a sound use of tools that farmers have available to make selection decisions. The farmer types differed in the form of collaboration and in the reactions to the hypothetical variation in subsidies. There were farmers with low dependency on subsidies, while most of them are highly dependent on subsidies. Therefore, any drastic change in the subsidy programme might have influence on the development of local breeds. The adaptation of these programme to the farmers’ heterogeneity might increase its efficacy, thus it would be interesting to explore ways of doing it. We conclude highlighting the need to have a variety of policies, which take into account the heterogeneity among the farmers. To finish we dealt with the genetic structure of livestock populations. Farmers’ decisions on the breeding animals and their progeny numbers shape the demographic and genetic structure of the breeds. Nowadays there is a renovated interest in studying the population structure since it can bias the prediction of genomic breeding values and genome wide association studies. We determined the genetic structure of ANI breed using two different methods, a graphical clustering algorithm (GCA) and a Bayesian clustering algorithm (STRUCTURE) were used. We paid particular attention to the influence that the presence of closely related individuals and the genetic differentiation of subpopulations may have on the inferences about the population structure. We first evaluated the performance of the algorithms in simulated populations. Then we inferred the genetic structure of the Spanish cattle breed ANI analysing a data set of 13343 animals (genotyped for 17 microsatellites) from 57 herds. ANI breed is an example of a population with complex relationships. We used the herdbook to study the gene flow, estimation among other things, the contribution of different herds to the genetic composition of the ANI breed. For the simulated scenarios, when FST among subpopulations was sufficiently high, both algorithms consistently inferred the correct structure regardless of the presence of related individuals. However, when the genetic differentiation among subpopulations was low, STRUCTURE identified the family based structure while GCA did not provide any consistent picture. The GCA was a fast and efficient method to infer genetic structure to determine the hidden core structure of a population with complex history and relationships. GCA could also be used to narrow down the number of clusters to be tested by STRUCTURE. Both, STRUCTURE and GCA describe a similar structure for the ANI breed suggesting that the results are robust. ANI population was found to have three genetically differentiated clusters that could correspond to three genetic lineages. These are directly related to the herds with a major contribution to the breed. In addition, ANI breed has also a large pool made of individuals with an admixture of origins. The genetic structure of ANI, assessed by molecular information, shows a stratification that corresponds to the demographic evolution of the breed. It will be of great importance to learn more about the composition of the pool and study how it is related to the existing genetic variability of the breed.

Herramienta para la gestión de diarios de entretenimientos configurables

El Trabajo Fin de Grado ha consistido en el diseño e implementación de una herramienta para la gestión y administración de los entrenamientos de atletas de deportes individuales. Hasta ahora los deportistas debían gestionar sus entrenamientos a través de hojas de cálculo, teniendo que dedicar tiempo al aprendizaje de herramientas como Microsoft Excel u OpenOffice Excel para personalizar las plantillas y guardar los datos, utilizar otras herramientas como Google Calendar para obtener una visión de un calendario con los entrenamientos realizados o bien utilizar programas hechos a medida para un deporte e incluso para un deportista. El objetivo principal consistía en desarrollar una herramienta que unificara todas las tareas para ofrecer al deportista las funciones de configuración de plantillas, registro y generación de gráficas de los datos registrados y visionado del calendario de entrenamientos de una forma ágil, sencilla e intuitiva, adaptándose a las necesidades de cualquier deporte o deportista. Para alcanzar el objetivo principal realizamos encuestas a atletas de una gran diversidad de deportes individuales, detectando las particularidades de cada deporte y analizando los datos que nos ofrecían para alcanzar el objetivo de diseñar una herramienta versátil que permitiera su uso independientemente de los parámetros que se quisiera registrar de cada entrenamiento. La herramienta generada es una herramienta programada en Java, que ofrece portabilidad a cualquier sistema operativo que lo soporte, sin ser necesario realizar una instalación previa. Es una aplicación plug and play en la que solo se necesita del fichero ejecutable para su funcionamiento; de esta forma facilitamos que el deportista guarde toda la información en muy poco espacio, 6 megabytes aproximadamente, y pueda llevarla a cualquier lado en un pen drive o en sistemas de almacenamiento en la nube. Además, los ficheros en los que se registran los datos son ficheros CSV (valores separados por comas) con un formato estandarizado que permite la exportación a otras herramientas. Como conclusión el atleta ahorra tiempo y esfuerzo en tareas ajenas a la práctica del deporte y disfruta de una herramienta que le permite analizar de diferentes maneras cada uno de los parámetros registrados para ver su evolución y ayudarle a mejorar aquellos aspectos que sean deficientes. ---ABSTRACT---The Final Project consists in the design and implementation of a tool for the management and administration of training logs for individual athletes. Until now athletes had to manage their workouts through spreadsheets, having to spend time in learning tools such as Microsoft Excel or OpenOffice in order to save the data, others tools like Google Calendar to check their training plan or buy specifics programs designed for a specific sport or even for an athlete. The main purpose of this project is to develop an intuitive and straightforward tool that unifies all tasks offering setup functions, data recording, graph generation and training schedule to the athletes. Whit this in mind, we have interviewed athletes from a wide range of individual sports, identifying their specifications and analyzing the data provided to design a flexible tool that registers multitude of training parameters. This tool has been coded in Java, providing portability to any operating system that supports it, without installation being required. It is a plug and play application, that only requires the executable file to start working. Accordingly, athletes can keep all the information in a relative reduced space (aprox 6 megabytes) and save it in a pen drive or in the cloud. In addition, the files whit the stored data are CSV (comma separated value) files whit a standardized format that allows exporting to other tools. Consequently athletes will save time and effort on tasks unrelated to the practice of sports. The new tool will enable them to analyze in detail all the existing data and improve in those areas with development opportunities.

Memoria, aprendizaje y experimento : la invención del paisaje en Miguel Fisac

La presente investigación propone que la construcción del paisaje -la invención del mismo- es el elemento esencial para la comprensión global de la obra de Miguel Fisac. Se rebela así ante el desprecio "por el paisaje social, humano y físico" que le atribuye a los representantes del Movimiento Moderno. A través de tres ejes, Memoria, Aprendizaje y Experimento, se hilvana un viaje autobiográfico, con salida y regreso a La Mancha. Memoria, que recorre sus vivencias infantiles en intenso contacto con la naturaleza; así como su embelesamiento por la esencia de la arquitectura popular, esa "que hacen el pueblo y el tiempo". Aprendizaje, como un proceso de búsqueda con capacidad para mover los ejes referenciales en relación a su concepción de la arquitectura y a como ésta ha de dialogar con el paisaje: viajes alrededor del mundo, encuentros intelectuales con maestros indiscutibles de la modernidad, y el descubrimiento de otras culturas, materializado a través de la casa tradicional japonesa y de La Alhambra. Y Experimento, donde se concretan los conceptos anteriores a través de una suerte de gramática que el arquitecto utiliza para activar el paisaje, modificarlo, o reinterpretarlo. Todo ello se contrasta en ejemplos paradigmáticos de su arquitectura: el Instituto Laboral de Daimiel (1950-1953), el Centro de Formación del Profesorado de la Ciudad Universitaria de Madrid (1952-1957); y en el tránsito producido entre los conjuntos dominicos del Colegio Apostólico de Arcas Reales de Valladolid y el Teologado de Alcobendas (1951-1955). Arquitecturas en las que los citados aprendizajes tamizados en la memoria propicia que el paisaje resuene en ellas, transformando en cuerpo nuevo el alma del pasado. Ejemplos que sustancian un mapa mediante el cual se posibilita, desde el paisaje como herramienta de análisis, una relectura transversal de la obra del maestro daimieleño y que presiente su trayectoria como un proyecto único. ABSTRACT The current research proposes that the landscape construction -its invention- is the essential element for the overall understanding of Miguel Fisac's work. So, he rebels against the thought -attributed to the Modern Movement representatives-, who despise the "social, human, and physical" landscape He uses three aspects to develop his own life journey, which leaves and returns to La Mancha: Memory, Learning and Experimentation. The Memory is a journey inside his childhood, when he was very much in contact with nature; and later, his captivation by the essence of the popular architecture, that one which is "made by people, and by time". The Learning is the process which it has the capacity to move his referential axis relating his own conception of architecture and how it must dialogue with the landscape: journeys around the world, intellectual meetings with the best masters in Modernity and the discovery of other cultures, becoming real in the traditional Japanese house and La Alhambra. And the Experimentation, where these mentioned concepts are concreted through a kind of grammar, with which the architect is able to activate the landscape, modify, or reinterpret it. All of this is reaffirmed in some paradigmatic examples of his best architecture: the Occupational Institute of Daimiel (1950-1953), the Teacher Training Center of the Madrid's University City (1952-1957); and the way between the "Arcas Reales" Apostolic College in Valladolid and the Dominican Theologate in Alcobendas (1951-1955). Architectures that show how the Learning, screened through Memory, promotes that the landscape resonate in them, becoming new body the soul of the past. These examples substantiate a map which allows, from the landscape as a tool of analysis, a cross-reading of the work of this master-architect from Daimiel , and we can sense his career as a unique project.

P element insertion-dependent gene activation in the Drosophila eye

Insights into the function of a gene can be gained in multiple ways, including loss-of-function phenotype, sequence similarity, expression pattern, and by the consequences of its misexpression. Analysis of the phenotypes produced by expression of a gene at an abnormal time, place, or level may provide clues to a gene’s function when other approaches are not illuminating. Here we report that an eye-specific, enhancer–promoter present in the P element expression vector pGMR is able to drive high level expression in the eye of genes near the site of P element insertion. Cell fate determination, differentiation, proliferation, and death are essential for normal eye development. Thus the ability to carry out eye-specific misexpression of a significant fraction of genes in the genome, given the dispensability of the eye for viability and fertility of the adult, should provide a powerful approach for identifying regulators of these processes. To test this idea we carried out two overexpression screens for genes that function to regulate cell death. We screened for insertion-dependent dominant phenotypes in a wild-type background, and for dominant modifiers of a reaper overexpression-induced small eye phenotype. Multiple chromosomal loci were identified, including an insertion 5′ to hid, a potent inducer of apoptosis, and insertions 5′ to DIAP1, a cell death suppressor. To facilitate the cloning of genes near the P element insertion new misexpression vectors were created. A screen with one of these vectors identified eagle as a suppressor of a rough eye phenotype associated with overexpression of an activated Ras1 gene.

Spatial memory is related to hippocampal subcellular concentrations of calcium-dependent protein kinase C isoforms in young and aged rats

Relationships were examined between spatial learning and hippocampal concentrations of the α, β2, and γ isoforms of protein kinase C (PKC), an enzyme implicated in neuronal plasticity and memory formation. Concentrations of PKC were determined for individual 6-month-old (n = 13) and 24-month-old (n = 27) male Long–Evans rats trained in the water maze on a standard place-learning task and a transfer task designed for rapid acquisition. The results showed significant relationships between spatial learning and the amount of PKC among individual subjects, and those relationships differed according to age, isoform, and subcellular fraction. Among 6-month-old rats, those with the best spatial memory were those with the highest concentrations of PKCγ in the particulate fraction and of PKCβ2 in the soluble fraction. Aged rats had increased hippocampal PKCγ concentrations in both subcellular fractions in comparison with young rats, and memory impairment was correlated with higher PKCγ concentrations in the soluble fraction. No age difference or correlations with behavior were found for concentrations of PKCγ in a comparison structure, the neostriatum, or for PKCα in the hippocampus. Relationships between spatial learning and hippocampal concentrations of calcium-dependent PKC are isoform-specific. Moreover, age-related spatial memory impairment is associated with altered subcellular concentrations of PKCγ and may be indicative of deficient signal transduction and neuronal plasticity in the hippocampal formation.

Evolvability

Evolvability is an organism’s capacity to generate heritable phenotypic variation. Metazoan evolution is marked by great morphological and physiological diversification, although the core genetic, cell biological, and developmental processes are largely conserved. Metazoan diversification has entailed the evolution of various regulatory processes controlling the time, place, and conditions of use of the conserved core processes. These regulatory processes, and certain of the core processes, have special properties relevant to evolutionary change. The properties of versatile protein elements, weak linkage, compartmentation, redundancy, and exploratory behavior reduce the interdependence of components and confer robustness and flexibility on processes during embryonic development and in adult physiology. They also confer evolvability on the organism by reducing constraints on change and allowing the accumulation of nonlethal variation. Evolvability may have been generally selected in the course of selection for robust, flexible processes suitable for complex development and physiology and specifically selected in lineages undergoing repeated radiations.

Initiation process of earthquakes and its implications for seismic hazard reduction strategy.

For the average citizen and the public, "earthquake prediction" means "short-term prediction," a prediction of a specific earthquake on a relatively short time scale. Such prediction must specify the time, place, and magnitude of the earthquake in question with sufficiently high reliability. For this type of prediction, one must rely on some short-term precursors. Examinations of strain changes just before large earthquakes suggest that consistent detection of such precursory strain changes cannot be expected. Other precursory phenomena such as foreshocks and nonseismological anomalies do not occur consistently either. Thus, reliable short-term prediction would be very difficult. Although short-term predictions with large uncertainties could be useful for some areas if their social and economic environments can tolerate false alarms, such predictions would be impractical for most modern industrialized cities. A strategy for effective seismic hazard reduction is to take full advantage of the recent technical advancements in seismology, computers, and communication. In highly industrialized communities, rapid earthquake information is critically important for emergency services agencies, utilities, communications, financial companies, and media to make quick reports and damage estimates and to determine where emergency response is most needed. Long-term forecast, or prognosis, of earthquakes is important for development of realistic building codes, retrofitting existing structures, and land-use planning, but the distinction between short-term and long-term predictions needs to be clearly communicated to the public to avoid misunderstanding.

A prova ilícita na investigação de paternidade

A presente dissertação versa sobre a prova ilícita na investigação de paternidade, com a percepção que inexistem direitos e garantias absolutos. Sob esse ponto de vista, propõe-se a demonstrar que tanto o direito à prova quanto a garantia constitucional da inadmissibilidade da prova obtida por meios ilícitos são passíveis de sofrer restrições. Essas restrições, entretanto, não podem implicar na supressão de direitos e garantias fundamentais. Elas devem limitar-se ao estritamente necessário para a salvaguarda de outros direitos constitucionalmente protegidos, à luz de um juízo de ponderação entre os valores conflitantes. Os valores colidentes a serem analisados no presente trabalho são, por um lado, a proteção constitucional dispensada à intimidade, à vida privada, à imagem, à honra, ao sigilo da correspondência, às comunicações telegráficas, aos dados, às comunicações telefônicas e ao domicílio do suposto pai e, por outro, o direito do filho conhecer a sua origem genética e receber do genitor assistência material, educacional e psicológica, além da herança no caso de morte deste. Avultam-se, ainda, os comandos constitucionais da paternidade responsável (CF, o art. 226, § 7º) e da prioridade absoluta que a Constituição Federal confere às questões afetas à criança e ao adolescente. Nessa linha de perspectiva, procura conciliar o direito fundamental ao conhecimento da origem genética com a garantia constitucional que veda a obtenção da prova por meios ilícitos, reduzindo, quando necessário, o alcance de um desses valores contrastantes para que haja a preservação do outro e o restabelecimento do equilíbrio entre eles. Com o intuito de facilitar a compreensão do assunto, o estudo sobre a prova ilícita na investigação de paternidade encontra-se dividido em três capítulos. No primeiro capítulo são estudados o objeto da prova na investigação de paternidade, os fatos a provar, as teorias sobre o objeto da prova, o ônus da prova, a distribuição e a inversão do ônus da prova na investigação de paternidade, o momento da inversão do ônus da prova, o dever de colaboração e a realização do exame de DNA sem o consentimento das partes. Partindo da compreensão da prova como instrumento capaz de propiciar ao juiz o convencimento dos fatos pertinentes, relevantes e controvertidos deduzidos pelas partes como fundamento da ação ou da defesa, sustenta-se que os fatos a provar não são apenas os principais, mas, também, os acessórios que se situem na mesma cadeia deles. Desenvolve-se, outrossim, estudo sobre as teorias utilizadas pela doutrina para explicar o objeto da prova, a saber: a) a teoria clássica; b) a teoria da afirmação; c) a teoria mista. Nesse tópico, merece ênfase o fato das legislações brasileira e portuguesa estarem alicerçadas sob as bases da teoria clássica, em que pesem as divergências doutrinárias sobre o assunto. No item reservado ao ônus da prova, este é concebido como uma atividade e não como uma obrigação, diante da autonomia de vontade que a parte tem para comportar-se da maneira que melhor lhe aprouver para alcançar o resultado pretendido. Embora não traduza um dever jurídico demonstrar a veracidade dos fatos que ensejam a constituição do direito alegado, quem não consegue reunir a prova dos fatos que alega corre o risco de perder a demanda. No que tange à regra de distribuição do ônus da prova, recomenda-se a observação das disposições do art. 333 do CPC, segundo as quais incumbe ao autor comprovar o fato constitutivo do seu direito e ao réu a existência de fato impeditivo, modificativo ou extintivo do direito do autor. Argumenta-se que o CPC brasileiro adota o modelo estático de distribuição do ônus da prova, pois não leva em conta a menor ou maior dificuldade que cada parte tem para produzir a prova que lhe incumbe. Porém, ressalta-se o novo horizonte que se descortina no anteprojeto do novo CPC brasileiro que se encontra no Congresso Nacional, o qual sinaliza no sentido de acolher a distribuição dinâmica do ônus da prova. Esse novo modelo, contudo, não afasta aquele previsto no art. 333 do CPC, mas, sim, o aperfeiçoa ao atribuir o ônus a quem esteja em melhores condições de produzir a prova. Ao tratar do dever de colaboração, idealiza-se a busca descoberta da verdade como finalidade precípua do ordenamento jurídico. E, para se alcançar a justa composição da lide, compreende-se que as partes devem atuar de maneira escorreita, expondo os fatos conforme a verdade e cumprindo com exatidão os provimentos formais. Sob essa ótica, sustenta-se a possibilidade de inversão do ônus da prova, da aplicação da presunção legal de paternidade e até mesmo da condução coercitiva do suposto pai para a realização de exames, caso o mesmo a tanto se recuse ou crie, propositalmente, obstáculo capaz de tornar impossível a colheita da prova. Defende-se que a partir da concepção do nascituro, a autonomia de vontade dos pais fica restringida, de forma que a mãe não pode realizar o aborto e o pai não pode fazer pouco caso da existência do filho, recusando-se, injustificadamente, a submeter-se a exame de DNA e a dar-lhe assistência material, educacional e psicológica. É por essa razão que, em caráter excepcional, se enxerga a possibilidade de condução coercitiva do suposto pai para a coleta de material genético, a exemplo do que ocorre no ordenamento jurídico alemão (ZPO, § 372). Considera-se, outrossim, que a elucidação da paternidade, além de ajudar no diagnóstico, prevenção e tratamento de algumas doenças hereditárias, atende à exigência legal de impedir uniões incestuosas, constituídas entre parentes afins ou consanguíneos com a violação de impedimentos matrimoniais. Nesse contexto, a intangibilidade do corpo não é vista como óbice para a realização do exame de DNA, o qual pode ser feito mediante simples utilização de fios de cabelos com raiz, fragmentos de unhas, saliva e outros meios menos invasivos. O sacrifício a que se submete o suposto pai mostra-se, portanto, ínfimo se comparado com o interesse superior do investigante que se busca amparar. No segundo capítulo, estuda-se o direito fundamental à prova e suas limitações na investigação de paternidade, a prova vedada ou proibida, a distinção entre as provas ilegítima e ilícita, a manifestação e alcance da ilicitude, o tratamento dispensado à prova ilícita no Brasil, nos Estados Unidos da América e em alguns países do continente europeu, o efeito-à-distância das proibições de prova na investigação de paternidade e a ponderação de valores entre os interesses em conflito: prova ilícita x direito ao conhecimento da origem genética. Nesse contexto, o direito à prova é reconhecido como expressão do princípio geral de acesso ao Poder Judiciário e componente do devido processo legal, materializado por meio dos direitos de ação, de defesa e do contraditório. Compreende-se, entretanto, que o direito à prova não pode ser exercido a qualquer custo. Ele deve atender aos critérios de pertinência, relevância e idoneidade, podendo sofrer limitações nos casos expressamente previstos em lei. Constituem exemplos dessas restrições ao direito à prova a rejeição das provas consideradas supérfluas, irrelevantes, ilegítimas e ilícitas. A expressão “provas vedadas ou proibidas” é definida no trabalho como gênero das denominadas provas ilícita e ilegítima, servindo para designar as provas constituídas, obtidas, utilizadas ou valoradas com afronta a normas de direito material ou processual. A distinção que se faz entre a prova ilícita e a ilegítima leva em consideração a natureza da norma violada. Quando há violação a normas de caráter processual, sem afetar o núcleo essencial dos direitos fundamentais, considera-se a prova ilegítima; ao passo em que havendo infringência à norma de conteúdo material que afete o núcleo essencial do direito fundamental, a prova é tida como ilícita. Esta enseja o desentranhamento da prova dos autos, enquanto aquela demanda a declaração de nulidade do ato sem a observância da formalidade exigida. A vedação da prova ilícita, sob esse aspecto, funciona como garantia constitucional em favor do cidadão e contra arbítrios do poder público e dos particulares. Nessa ótica, o Direito brasileiro não apenas veda a prova obtida por meios ilícitos (CF, art. 5º, X, XI, XII e LVI; CPP, art. 157), como, também, prevê sanções penais e civis para aqueles que desobedeçam à proibição. A análise da prova ilícita é feita à luz de duas concepções doutrinárias, a saber: a) a restritiva - exige que a norma violada infrinja direito ou garantia fundamental; b) a ampla – compreende que a ilicitude afeta não apenas as normas que versem sobre os direitos e garantias fundamentais, mas todas as normas e princípios gerais do direito. A percepção que se tem à luz do art. 157 do CPP é que o ordenamento jurídico brasileiro adotou o conceito amplo de ilicitude, pois define como ilícitas as provas obtidas com violação a normas constitucionais ou legais, sem excluir àquelas de natureza processual nem exigir que o núcleo do direito fundamental seja atingido. Referido dispositivo tem sido alvo de críticas, pois a violação da lei processual pode não implicar na inadmissibilidade da prova e aconselhar o seu desentranhamento dos autos. A declaração de nulidade ou renovação do ato cuja formalidade tenha sido preterida pode ser suficiente para contornar o problema, sem a necessidade de exclusão da prova do processo. Noutra vertente, como a vedação da prova ilícita não pode ser levada às últimas consequências nem se converter em meio facilitador da prática de atos ilícitos e consagrador da impunidade, defende-se a sua admissão nos casos de estado de necessidade, legítima defesa, estrito cumprimento do dever legal e exercício regular de um direito. Assim, entende-se possível a utilização pela vítima de estupro, no processo de investigação de paternidade movido em prol do seu filho, do exame de DNA realizado mediante análise do sêmen deixado em sua vagina por ocasião do ato sexual que resultou na gravidez. Sustenta-se, ainda, a possibilidade de utilização das imagens captadas por circuito interno de câmaras comprobatórias do estupro para fazer prova da paternidade. Ressalta-se, outrossim, que no Brasil a doutrina e a jurisprudência têm admitido a prova ilícita, no processo penal, para comprovar a inocência do acusado e, em favor da vítima, nos casos de extorsão, concussão, sequestro e outros delitos similares. No ponto relativo ao efeito-àdistância das proibições de prova, aduz-se que as experiências americana e alemã da fruit of the poisonous tree doctrine e da fernwirkung são fonte de inspiração para as legislações de vários países. Por força da teoria dos frutos da árvore envenenada, o vício da planta transmite-se aos seus frutos. Ainda no segundo capítulo, estabelece-se breve comparação do tratamento conferido à prova ilícita nos ordenamentos jurídicos brasileiro e português, destacando-se que no regime de controle adotado pela Constituição da República Federativa do Brasil a prova ilícita é tratada como ineficaz e deve ser rejeitada de plano ou desentranhada do processo. Já na Constituição portuguesa adotou-se o regime de nulidade. Após o ingresso da prova ilícita no processo, o juiz declara a sua nulidade. O terceiro capítulo é dedicado ao estudo dos meios de prova e da incidência da ilicitude no processo de investigação de paternidade. Para tanto são eleitos os meios de prova enumerados no art. 212 do Código Civil, quais sejam: a) confissão; b) documento; c) testemunha; d) presunção; e) perícia, além do depoimento pessoal previsto no CPC, analisando a incidência da ilicitude em cada um deles. Má vontade a investigação de paternidade envolva direitos indisponíveis, isso não significa que as declarações das partes não tenham valor probatório, pois o juiz pode apreciá-las como elemento probatório (CC, art. 361º). Por meio do depoimento e confissão da parte são extraídas valiosas informações sobre o tempo, o lugar e a frequência das relações sexuais. Todavia, havendo emprego de métodos proibidos, tais como ameaça, coação, tortura, ofensa à integridade física ou moral, hipnose, utilização de meios cruéis, enganosos ou perturbação da capacidade de memória, a prova será considerada ilícita e não terá validade nem mesmo como elemento probatório a ser livremente apreciado pelo juiz. A prova documental é estudada como a mais vulnerável à incidência da ilicitude, pelo fato de poder expressar-se das mais variadas formas. Essa manifestação da ilicitude pode verificar-se por ocasião da formação da prova documental, no ato da sua obtenção ou no momento da sua exibição em juízo por meio falsificação material do documento público ou particular, da omissão de declaração deveria constar, inserção de declaração falsa ou diversa da que devia ser escrita, alteração de documento verdadeiro, emprego de métodos proibidos de prova para confecção do documento, etc. Na esteira desse raciocínio, em se fazendo constar, por exemplo, da escritura pública ou particular ou do testamento (CC, art. 1.609, II e III) declaração falsa da paternidade, a prova assim constituída é ilícita. Do mesmo modo, é considerada ilícita a prova obtida mediante indevida intromissão na vida privada, com violação de domicílio, emails, sigilos da correspondência, telefônico ou fiscal, realização de gravações, filmagens, etc. Na prova testemunhal entende-se como elemento configurador da ilicitude o emprego de métodos proibidos por parte de agentes públicos ou particulares, tais como tortura, coação, ameaça, chantagem, recursos que impliquem na diminuição ou supressão da capacidade de compreensão, etc, para que a testemunha faça afirmação falsa, negue ou cale a verdade dos fatos. Destaca-se, ainda, como ilícita a prova cujo acesso pela testemunha tenha ocorrido mediante violação à reserva da vida privada. No caso das presunções, vislumbra-se a possibilidade de incidência da ilicitude quando houver ilicitude no fato conhecido, do qual se vale a lei ou o julgador para extraírem as consequências para dedução da existência do fato desconhecido. A troca maliciosa de gametas é citada como meio ilícito de prova para alicerçar a presunção de paternidade no caso de inseminação artificial homóloga. A consecução da prévia autorização do marido, mediante coação, tortura, ameaça, hipnose, etc, na inseminação artificial heteróloga, também é tratada como ação danosa e capaz de viciar e infirmar a presunção legal de paternidade. Enxerga-se, outrossim, no meio de prova pericial, a possibilidade de maculação do resultado do exame por falha humana intencional no processo de coleta, transporte, armazenamento, manipulação ou troca do material genético coletado. Em se verificando essa situação, fica comprometida a credibilidade da prova pericial ante a sua ilicitude.

Experiments and observations on the behaviour and brain of the aging female mouse with special reference to dementia of the Alzheimer type

The objective of this research was to investigate the effects of normal aging and the additional effects of chronic exposure to two experimental diets, one enriched in aluminium, the other enriched in lecithin, on aspects of the behaviour and brain histology of the female mouse. The aluminium diet was administered in an attempt to develop a rodent model of Dementia of the Alzheimer Type (DAT). With normal aging, almost all assessed aspects of behaviour were found to be impaired. As regards cognition, selective impairments of single-trial passive avoidance and Morris place learning were observed. While all aspects of open-field behaviour were impaired, the degree of impairment was directly related to the degree of motoric complexity. Deficits were also observed on non-visual sensorimotor coordination tasks and in olfactory discrimination. Histologically, neuron loss, gliosis, vacuolation and congophilic angiopathy were observed in several of the brain regions/fibre tracts believed to contribute to the control of some of the assessed behaviours. The aluminium treatment had very selective effects on both behaviour and brain histology, inducing several features observed in DAT. Behaviourally, the treatment induced impaired spatial reference memory; reduced ambulation; disturbed olfactory function and induced the premature development of the senile pattern of swimming. Histologically, significant neuron loss and gliosis were observed in the hippocampus, entorhinal cortex, amygdala, medial septum, pyriform and pr-frontal cortex. In addition, the brain distribution of congophilic angiopathy was significantly increased by the treatment. The lecithin treatment had effects on both non-cognitive and cognitive aspects of behaviour. The effects of aging on open-field ambulation and rearing were partially ameliorated by the treatment. A similar effect was observed for single-trial passive avoidance performance. Age-dependent improvements in acquisition/retention were observed in 17-23 month mice and Morris place task performance was improved in 11 and 17 month mice. Histologically, a partial sparing of neurons in the cerebellum, hippocampus, entorhinal cortex and subiculum was observed.

Sustainable development

The United Nations has pithily defined sustainable development as progress that ‘meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs’. But sustainable development remains highly contested and is subject to a wide variety of interpretations, applications, and criticisms. Moreover, those seeking fully to understand this critical concept are confronted with a (sometimes dispiritingly) voluminous body of scholarly, polemical, and journalistic writing. Edited by the acclaimed author of Understanding Sustainable Development (Earthscan, 2008), this new title from Routledge’s Critical Concepts in the Environment series answers the need for an authoritative reference work to make sense of the vast literature on sustainable development, and the continuing explosion in research output. Drawing on a wide variety of sources that take full cognizance of the rich background and necessary adaptability of the concept to the imperatives of time, place, and culture, and which emphasize its connected and transdisciplinary nature, the editor has brought together in four volumes the canonical and the best cutting-edge work to produce an indispensable ‘mini library’. The collection covers the history, mediation, application, and likely future orientations of sustainable development, both conceptually and as a continually emerging practice. Sustainable Development is fully indexed and includes comprehensive introductions, newly written by the editor, which place the collected materials in their historical and intellectual context. It is an essential reference collection and is certain to be valued by scholars and students—as well as serious policy-makers and practitioners—as a vital one-stop research and pedagogic resource.

Deictic Demonstratives in Japanese, Finnish and Swedish : First and Third Language Perspectives

The goal of this thesis is twofold. Firstly, it investigates the actual, native use of spatial-deictic demonstratives in Japanese, Finnish and Swedish. Secondly, it investigates and elucidates the interlanguage of Finnish-speaking and Swedish-speaking learners of Japanese regarding their use of Japanese spatial-deictic demonstratives in the light of respective native use and, in comparison to the descriptions of demonstratives in the teaching materials used. Thus, the present study deals with analyses of two sets of empirical data: data produced by native-speaking informants (L1 data) and data produced by language learners (L2 data). These were elicited by Discourse Completion Tasks (DCTs) designed, collected and analyzed using both quantitative and qualitative methods by the author. The results showed that the actual use of demonstratives by the native informants was not always in accordance with the way described in grammars. The typological similarities between Japanese and Finnish were in this study not reflected in the native use of demonstratives, and some uses were not solely based on the spatial relations between the referent, the speaker and the addressee, but rather on social-interactional factors. The main findings regarding the learner data revealed some differences in the usage rate of the demonstratives between the two Finnish-speaking groups and the one Swedish-speaking learner group studied. There were, however, no particular differences found between them regarding the type of demonstrative used. It is suggested that these differences are first and foremost connected both with the teaching materials used and the more or less heterogeneous linguistic environment in which the learners reside, and only thereafter with the typological similarities or differences between their respective native languages, Finnish and Swedish, and the target language, Japanese. It is further argued that the learners’ use of the different Japanese demonstratives, that is the type of demonstrative used, could be explained in terms of familiarity with the grammar. That is, when the situations used in the DCTs were exemplified in teaching materials and were familiar to them, the learners seemed to use Japanese demonstratives as they are described in the teaching materials and as the native Japanese speakers use them. When the situations used in the DCTs were not exemplified in the teaching materials, the learners seem to rely more on their native language. The results, thus, suggest that the learners’ interlanguage is influenced by the grammar of the target language known to the learners, but also by the number of languages (or varieties) that the learners have contact with at the time of learning. The results of the present study have implications for the teaching of Japanese in at least two ways. Firstly, the importance of grammar instruction must be emphasized since its effect on the learners’ language is apparent. Secondly, the contents of teaching materials should be revised on the basis of the native speakers’ actual use of the grammar.