Role of phosphorylation in elicitation of the oxidative burst in cultured soybean cells.

The oxidative burst is likely the most rapid defense response mounted by a plant under pathogen attack, and the generated oxidant species may be essential to several subsequent defense responses. In our effort to characterize the signal-transduction pathways leading to rapid H2O2/O2- biosynthesis, we have examined the role of protein phosphorylation in this resistance mechanism. K-252a and staurosporine, two protein-kinase inhibitors, were found to block the oxidative burst in a concentration-dependent manner. When added during H2O2 generation, the burst was observed to rapidly terminate, suggesting that continuous phosphorylation was essential for its maintenance. Importantly, phosphatase inhibitors (calyculin A and okadaic acid) were found to induce the oxidative burst in the absence of any additional stimulus. This may suggest that certain kinases required for the burst are constitutively active and that stabilization of the phosphorylated forms of their substrates is all that is required for burst activity. In autoradiographs of elicited and unstimulated cells equilibrated with 32PO4(3-), several phosphorylated polypeptide bands were revealed that could represent proteins essential for the burst.

Alterazione della proteostasi a livello del reticolo endoplasmatico: un potenziale target terapeutico nel carcinoma prostatico

Nel sesso maschile il carcinoma della prostata (CaP) è la neoplasia più frequente ed è tra le prime cause di morte per tumore. Ad oggi, sono disponibili diverse strategie terapeutiche per il trattamento del CaP, ma, come comprovato dall’ancora alta mortalità, spesso queste sono inefficaci, a causa soprattutto dello sviluppo di fenomeni di resistenza da parte delle cellule tumorali. La ricerca si sta quindi focalizzando sulla caratterizzazione di tali meccanismi di resistenza e, allo stesso tempo, sull’individuazione di combinazioni terapeutiche che siano più efficaci e capaci di superare queste resistenze. Le cellule tumorali sono fortemente dipendenti dai meccanismi connessi con l’omeostasi proteica (proteostasi), in quanto sono sottoposte a numerosi stress ambientali (ipossia, carenza di nutrienti, esposizione a chemioterapici, ecc.) e ad un’aumentata attività trascrizionale, entrambi fattori che causano un accumulo intracellulare di proteine anomale e/o mal ripiegate, le quali possono risultare dannose per la cellula e vanno quindi riparate o eliminate efficientemente. La cellula ha sviluppato diversi sistemi di controllo di qualità delle proteine, tra cui gli chaperon molecolari, il sistema di degradazione associato al reticolo endoplasmatico (ERAD), il sistema di risposta alle proteine non ripiegate (UPR) e i sistemi di degradazione come il proteasoma e l’autofagia. Uno dei possibili bersagli in cellule tumorali secretorie, come quelle del CaP, è rappresentato dal reticolo endoplasmatico (RE), organello intracellulare deputato alla sintesi, al ripiegamento e alle modificazioni post-traduzionali delle proteine di membrana e secrete. Alterazioni della protestasi a livello del RE inducono l’UPR, che svolge una duplice funzione nella cellula: primariamente funge da meccanismo omeostatico e di sopravvivenza, ma, quando l’omeostasi non è più ripristinabile e lo stimolo di attivazione dell’UPR cronicizza, può attivare vie di segnalazione che conducono alla morte cellulare programmata. La bivalenza, tipica dell’UPR, lo rende un bersaglio particolarmente interessante per promuovere la morte delle cellule tumorali: si può, infatti, sfruttare da una parte l’inibizione di componenti dell’UPR per abrogare i meccanismi adattativi e di sopravvivenza e dall’altra si può favorire il sovraccarico dell’UPR con conseguente induzione della via pro-apoptotica. Le catechine del tè verde sono composti polifenolici estratti dalle foglie di Camellia sinesis che possiedono comprovati effetti antitumorali: inibiscono la proliferazione, inducono la morte di cellule neoplastiche e riducono l’angiogenesi, l’invasione e la metastatizzazione di diversi tipi tumorali, tra cui il CaP. Diversi studi hanno osservato come il RE sia uno dei bersagli molecolari delle catechine del tè verde. In particolare, recenti studi del nostro gruppo di ricerca hanno messo in evidenza come il Polyphenon E (estratto standardizzato di catechine del tè verde) sia in grado, in modelli animali di CaP, di causare un’alterazione strutturale del RE e del Golgi, un deficit del processamento delle proteine secretorie e la conseguente induzione di uno stato di stress del RE, il quale causa a sua volta l’attivazione delle vie di segnalazione dell’UPR. Nel presente studio su due diverse linee cellulari di CaP (LNCaP e DU145) e in un nostro precedente studio su altre due linee cellulari (PNT1a e PC3) è stato confermato che il Polyphenon E è capace di indurre lo stress del RE e di determinare l’attivazione delle vie di segnalazione dell’UPR, le quali possono fungere da meccanismo di sopravvivenza, ma anche contribuire a favorire la morte cellulare indotta dalle catechine del tè verde (come nel caso delle PC3). Considerati questi effetti delle catechine del tè verde in qualità di induttori dell’UPR, abbiamo ipotizzato che la combinazione di questi polifenoli bioattivi e degli inibitori del proteasoma, anch’essi noti attivatori dell’UPR, potesse comportare un aggravamento dell’UPR stesso tale da innescare meccanismi molecolari di morte cellulare programmata. Abbiamo quindi studiato l’effetto di tale combinazione in cellule PC3 trattate con epigallocatechina-3-gallato (EGCG, la principale tra le catechine del tè verde) e due diversi inibitori del proteasoma, il bortezomib (BZM) e l’MG132. I risultati hanno dimostrato, diversamente da quanto ipotizzato, che l’EGCG quando associato agli inibitori del proteasoma non produce effetti sinergici, ma che anzi, quando viene addizionato al BZM, causa una risposta simil-antagonistica: si osserva infatti una riduzione della citotossicità e dell’effetto inibitorio sul proteasoma (accumulo di proteine poliubiquitinate) indotti dal BZM, inoltre anche l’induzione dell’UPR (aumento di GRP78, p-eIF2α, CHOP) risulta ridotta nelle cellule trattate con la combinazione di EGCG e BZM rispetto alle cellule trattate col solo BZM. Gli stessi effetti non si osservano invece nelle cellule PC3 trattate con l’EGCG in associazione con l’MG132, dove non si registra alcuna variazione dei parametri di vitalità cellulare e dei marcatori di inibizione del proteasoma e di UPR (rispetto a quelli osservati nel singolo trattamento con MG132). Essendo l’autofagia un meccanismo compensativo che si attiva in seguito all’inibizione del proteasoma o allo stress del RE, abbiamo valutato che ruolo potesse avere tale meccanismo nella risposta simil-antagonistica osservata in seguito al co-trattamento con EGCG e BZM. I nostri risultati hanno evidenziato, in cellule trattate con BZM, l’attivazione di un flusso autofagico che si intensifica quando viene addizionato l’EGCG. Tramite l’inibizione dell’autofagia mediante co-somministrazione di clorochina, è stato possibile stabilire che l’autofagia indotta dall’EGCG favorisce la sopravvivenza delle cellule sottoposte al trattamento combinato tramite la riduzione dell’UPR. Queste evidenze ci portano a concludere che per il trattamento del CaP è sconsigliabile associare le catechine del tè verde con il BZM e che in futuri studi di combinazione di questi polifenoli con composti antitumorali sarà importante valutare il ruolo dell’autofagia come possibile meccanismo di resistenza.

Banho de clorexidina para prevenção de colonização e infecção por micro-organismos multirresistentes na unidade de transplante de células tronco e hematopoiéticas

Introdução: Infecções relacionadas à assistência de saúde (IRAS) representam hoje um dos principais desafios da qualidade do cuidado do paciente, principalmente em pacientes submetido a transplante de células tronco e hematopoiéticas (TCTH) O banho diário com a clorexidina (CHG) degermante a 2% tem sido proposto principalmente em unidades de terapia intensivas (UTIs) para diminuir a colonização bacteriana do paciente e assim diminuir IRAS. O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar o impacto do banho com CHG degermante a 2% em unidade de internação de TCTH na incidência de infecção e colonização por patógenos multirresistentes e ainda avaliar seu impacto na sensibilidade das bactérias ao antisséptico. Métodos: Foi realizado um estudo quasi-experimental, com duração de 9 anos, com início em janeiro/2005 até dezembro/2013. A intervenção foi iniciada em agosto de 2009, sendo que os períodos pré e pós-intervenção tiveram duração de 4,5 anos. As taxas de IRAS, infecção por gram-negativos multirresistentes e infecção e colonização por enterococo resistente a vancomicina (VRE) foram avaliadas através de série temporal, para estudar o impacto da intervenção. As concentrações inibitórias mínimas (CIM) das bactérias para a CHG com e sem o inibidor de bomba de efluxo (CCCP) foram avaliadas nos dois períodos. Os genes de resistência a CHG foram estudados por meio da PCR e a clonalidade dos isolados por eletroforese em campo pulsátil. Resultados: Foi observada redução significativa na incidência de infecção e colonização de VRE na unidade no período pós-intervenção (p: 0,001). Essa taxa permaneceu estável em outras UTIs clínicas do hospital. Contudo as taxas de infecção por Gram negativos multirresistentes aumentou nos últimos anos na unidade. Não ocorreu diminuição na taxa de IRAS na unidade. As CIMs testadas de CHG aumentaram nas amostras de VRE e K. pneumoniae após o período de exposição ao antisséptico, com queda importante da CIM após o uso do CCCP, revelando ser a bomba de efluxo, um importante mecanismo de resistência à CHG. As amostras de A. baumannii e P. aeruginosa não apresentaram aumento da CIM após período de exposição à clorexidina. As bombas de efluxo Ade A, B e C estiveram presentes na maioria dos A. baumannii do grupo controle (66%). A bomba cepA foi encontrada em 67% de todas as K. pneumoniae testadas e em 44,5% das P. aeruginosas do grupo pré intervenção. Observamos uma relação positiva entre a presença da CepA nas amostras de K. pneumoniae e a resposta ao CCCP: de todas as 49 amostras CepA positivas 67,3% obtiveram redução do seu MIC em 4 diluições após adição do CCCP. A avaliação de clonalidade demonstrou padrão policlonal das amostras de VRE, K. pneumoniae e A. baumannii avaliadas. Em relação às amostras de P. aeruginosa foi observado que no período pós-intervenção ocorreu predominância de um clone com > 80% semelhança em 10 das 22 amostras avaliadas pelo dendrograma. Conclusões: O banho de clorexidina teve impacto na redução da incidência de infecção e colonização por VRE na unidade de TCTH, e não teve o mesmo impacto nas bactérias gram-negativas. Os mecanismos moleculares de resistência à clorexidina estão intimamente ligados à presença de bomba de efluxo, sendo provavelmente o principal mecanismo de resistência e tolerância das bactérias ao antisséptico

Cellular impermeability and uptake of biocides and antibiotics in Gram-positive bacteria and mycobacteria

Gram-positive bacteria possess a permeable cell wall that usually does not restrict the penetration of antimicrobials. However, resistance due to restricted penetration can occur, as illustrated by vancomycin-intermediate resistant Staphylococcus aureus strains (VISA) which produce a markedly thickened cell wall. Alterations in these strains include increased amounts of nonamidated glutamine residues in the peptidoglycan and it is suggested that the resistance mechanism involves 'affinity trapping' of vancomycin in the thickened cell wall. VISA strains have reduced doubling times, lower sensitivity to lysostaphin and reduced autolytic activity, which may reflect changes in the D-alanyl ester content of the wall and membrane teichoic acids. Mycobacterial cell walls have a high lipid content, which is assumed to act as a major barrier to the penetration of antimicrobial agents. Relatively hydrophobic antibiotics such as rifampicin and fluoroquinolones may be able to cross the cell wall by diffusion through the hydrophobic bilayer composed of long chain length mycolic acids and glycolipids. Hydrophilic antibiotics and nutrients cannot diffuse across this layer and are thought to use porin channels which have been reported in many species of mycobacteria. The occurrence of porins in a lipid bilayer supports the view that the mycobacterial wall has an outer membrane analogous to that of gram-negative bacteria. However, mycobacterial porins are much less abundant than in the gram-negative outer membrane and allow only low rates of uptake for small hydrophilic nutrients and antibiotics.

Association of extended-spectrum β-lactamase VEB-5 and 16S rRNA methyltransferase armA in Salmonella enterica from the United Kingdom

Aminoglycosides and beta-lactams are used for the treatment of a wide range of infections due to both Gram-negative and Gram-positive. An emerging aminoglycoside resistance mechanism, methylation of the aminoacyl site of the 16S rRNA, confers high-level resistance to clinically important aminoglycosides such as amikacin, tobramycin and gentamicin. Eight 16S rRNA methyltransferase genes, armA, rmtA, rmtB, rmtC, rmtD, rmtE, rmtF and npmA, have been identified in several species of enterobacteria worldwide (2, 6, 7, 9, 11, 13, 14). Resistance to extended spectrum β-lactams remains additionally an important clinical problem. Apart from the large TEM, SHV, and CTX-M families, several other extended-spectrum β-lactamases (ESBLs) have been identified, including VEB enzymes, which confer high-level resistance to cephalosporins and monobactams. Although 16S rRNA methyltransferases have been frequently identified associated with different ESBLs, there has been no report of association of a 16S rRNA methyltransferase with a VEB enzyme, except for the identification of rmtC with blaVEB-6 (14)

Mechanism of Resistance to Rice Tungro Spherical Virus (RTSV)

RTSV is one of two viruses that cause tungro disease. RTSV is independently transmitted, whereas the other virus, rice tungro bacilliform virus (RTBV), is dependent on RTSV for its transmission by the green leafhopper (GLH), Nephotettix virescens. The occurrence and spread of tungro disease therefore depend on the presence of RTSV in the field. Resistance to RTSV infection would slow down the spread of the disease.

Mechanism for Giycinebetaine to Improve Plant Salt Resistance and Its Research Advances in Genetic Engineering

The paper systematically discusses the mechanism for glycinebetaine to improve plant salt resistance and its research advances in genetic engineering at home and abroad as well as summarizing the research progresses about the key enzymes and their genetic engineering in glycinebetaine biosynthesis. It suggests that on the basis of further understanding the mechanism for glycinebetaine to improve plant salt resistance,the transformation of the genes relating to glycinebetaine biosynthesis should be carried out in major crops so that new plant varieties resistant to salt can be obtained.

Src and ADAM-17-Mediated Shedding of Transforming Growth Factor-alpha Is a Mechanism of Acute Resistance to TRAIL

Tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL/Apo-2L) has emerged as a promising anticancer agent. However, resistance to TRAIL is likely to be a major problem, and sensitization of cancer cells to TRAIL may therefore be an important anticancer strategy. In this study, we examined the effect of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR)tyrosine kinase inhibitor (TKI) gefitinib and a human epidermal receptor 2 (HER2)-TKI (M578440) on the sensitivity of human colorectal cancer (CRC) cell lines to recombinant human TRAIL (rhTRAIL). A synergistic interaction between rhTRAIL and gefitinib and rhTRAIL and M578440 was observed in both rhTRAIL-sensitive and resistant CRC cells. This synergy correlated with an increase in EGFR and HER2 activation after rhTRAIL treatment. Furthermore, treatment of CRC cells with rhTRAIL resulted in activation of the Src family kinases (SFK). Importantly, we found that rhTRAIL treatment induced shedding of transforming growth factor-alpha (TGF-alpha) that was dependent on SFK activity and the protease ADAM-17. Moreover, this shedding of TGF-alpha was critical for rhTRAIL-induced activation of EGFR. In support of this, SFK inhibitors and small interfering RNAs targeting ADAM-17 and TGF-alpha also sensitized CRC cells to rhTRAIL-mediated apoptosis. Taken together, our findings indicate that both rhTRAIL-sensitive and resistant CRC cells respond to rhTRAIL treatment by activating an EGFR/HER2-mediated survival response and that these cells can be sensitized to rhTRAIL using EGFR/HER2-targeted therapies. Furthermore, this acute response to rhTRAIL is regulated by SFK-mediated and ADAM-17-mediated shedding of TGF-alpha, such that targeting SFKs or inhibiting ADAM-17, in combination with rhTRAIL, may enhance the response of CRC tumors to rhTRAIL. [Cancer Res 2008;68(20):8312-21]

Overexpression of the rhamnose catabolism regulatory protein, RhaR: a novel mechanism for metronidazole resistance in Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron

Objectives: The aim of the investigation was to use in vitro transposon mutagenesis to generate metronidazole resistance in the obligately anaerobic pathogenic bacterium Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron, and to identify the genes involved to enable investigation of potential mechanisms for the generation of metronidazole resistance.
Methods: The genes affected by the transposon insertion were identified by plasmid rescue and sequencing. Expression levels of the relevant genes were determined by semi-quantitative RNA hybridization and catabolic activity by lactate dehydrogenase/pyruvate oxidoreductase assays.
Results: A metronidazole-resistant mutant was isolated and the transposon insertion site was identified in an intergenic region between the rhaO and rhaR genes of the gene cluster involved in the uptake and catabolism of rhamnose. Metronidazole resistance was observed during growth in defined medium containing either rhamnose or glucose. The metronidazole-resistant mutant showed improved growth in the presence of rhamnose as compared with the wild-type parent. There was increased transcription of all genes of the rhamnose gene cluster in the presence of rhamnose and glucose, likely due to the transposon providing an additional promoter for the rhaR gene, encoding the positive transcriptional regulator of the rhamnose operon. The B. thetaiotaomicron metronidazole resistance phenotype was recreated by overexpressing the rhaR gene in the B. thetaiotaomicron wild-type parent. Both the metronidazole-resistant transposon mutant and RhaR overexpression strains displayed a phenotype of higher lactate dehydrogenase and lower pyruvate oxidoreductase activity in comparison with the parent strain during growth in rhamnose.
Conclusions: These data indicate that overexpression of the rhaR gene generates metronidazole resistance in B. thetaiotaomicron

Mechanism of arsenate resistance in the ericoid mycorrhizal fungus Hymenoscyphus ericae

Arsenate resistance is exhibited by the ericoid mycorrhizal fungus Hymenoscyphus ericae collected from As-contaminated mine soils. To investigate the mechanism of arsenate resistance, uptake kinetics for arsenate (H(2)AsO(4)(-)), arsenite (H(3)AsO(3)), and phosphate (H(2)PO(4)(-)) were determined in both arsenate-resistant and -non-resistant H. ericae. The uptake kinetics of H(2)AsO(4)(-), H(3)AsO(3), and H(2)PO(4)(-) in both resistant and non-resistant isolates were similar. The presence of 5.0 microM H(2)PO(4)(-) repressed uptake of H(2)AsO(4)(-) and exposure to 0.75 mM H(2)AsO(4)(-) repressed H(2)PO(4)(-) uptake in both H. ericae. Mine site H. ericae demonstrated an enhanced As efflux mechanism in comparison with non-resistant H. ericae and lost approximately 90% of preloaded cellular As (1-h uptake of 0.22 micromol g(-1) dry weight h(-1) H(2)AsO(4)(-)) over a 5-h period in comparison with non-resistant H. ericae, which lost 40% of their total absorbed H(2)AsO(4)(-). As lost from the fungal tissue was in the form of H(3)AsO(3). The results of the present study demonstrate an enhanced H(3)AsO(3) efflux system operating in mine site H. ericae as a mechanism for H(2)AsO(4)(-) resistance. The ecological significance of this mechanism of arsenate resistance is discussed.

Putrescine Reduces Antibiotic-Induced Oxidative Stress as a Mechanism of Modulation of Antibiotic Resistance in Burkholderia cenocepacia

Communication of antibiotic resistance among bacteria via small molecules is implicated in transient reduction of bacterial susceptibility to antibiotics, which could lead to therapeutic failures aggravating the problem of antibiotic resistance. Released putrescine from the extremely antibiotic resistant bacterium Burkholderia cenocepacia protects less resistant cells from different species against the antimicrobial peptide polymyxin B (PmB). Exposure of B. cenocepacia to sub-lethal concentrations of PmB and other bactericidal antibiotics induce reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and expression of the oxidative stress response regulator OxyR. We evaluated whether putrescine alleviates antibiotic-induced oxidative stress. The accumulation of intracellular ROS such as superoxide ion and hydrogen peroxide was assessed fluorometrically with dichlorofluorescein diacetate, while the expression of OxyR and putrescine synthesis enzymes was determined in luciferase assays using chromosomal promoter-lux reporter system fusions. We evaluated wild type and isogenic deletion mutant strains with defects in putrescine biosynthesis after exposure to sub-lethal concentrations of PmB and other bactericidal antibiotics. Exogenous putrescine protected against oxidative stress induced by PmB and other antibiotics, whereas reduced putrescine synthesis resulted in increased ROS generation, and a parallel increased sensitivity to PmB. Of the 3 B. cenocepacia putrescine synthesizing enzymes, PmB induced only BCAL2641, an ornithine decarboxylase. This study exposes BCAL2641 as a critical component of the putrescine-mediated communication of antibiotic resistance, and as a plausible target for designing inhibitors that would block the communication of such resistance among different bacteria, ultimately reducing the window of therapeutic failure in treating bacterial infections.