Characterization of a new potential virulence factor of Microsporum canis, the secreted subtilisin Sub6

Background: Microsporum canis is a dermatophyte responsible for cutaneous superficial mycoses in domestic carnivores and humans. The pathogenesis of dermatophytoses, including M. canis infections, remains poorly understood. Secreted proteases including members of the subtilisin family are thought to be involved in the infection process. In particular the subtilisin Sub6 could represent a major virulence factor.Objective: The aim of this work was to (i) isolate the M. canis SUB6 genomic DNA and cDNA (ii) produce Sub6 as a recombinant protease (rSub6) and (iii) produce a specific anti-Sub6 polyclonal serum. Material and methods: Genomic SUB6 was amplified by PCR using specific primers and M. canis IHEM 21239 DNA as a target. The SUB6 cDNA was obtained by reverse transcriptase (RT)-PCR using total RNA extracted from the same M. canis strain grown in liquid medium containing feline keratin as unique nitrogen source. Both SUB6 cDNA and genomic DNA were sequenced. The SUB6 cDNA was cloned in pPICZA to produce recombinant Sub6 (rSub6) in Pichia pastoris KM71. This protease rSub6 was produced in methanol medium at a yield of 30 mg ml)1 and purified by anion exchange chromatography using a DEAE-sepharose column. Polyclonal antibodies against purified rSub6 were produced in a rabbit using a standard immunization procedure with saponin as the adjuvant. Seventy days after the first immunization, serum was collected and IgG were purified by affinity chromatography.Results: The coding sequence for M. canis SUB6 from genomic DNA contains 1410 bp and 3 introns, while the cDNA contains a 1221 bp open reading frame. Deduced amino acid sequence analysis revealed that Sub6 is synthesized as a 406 amino acids preproprotein. The predicted catalytic domain has 286 amino acids, a molecular mass of 29.1 kDa and five potential N-glycosylation sites. SDS-PAGE of rSub6 revealed a single polypeptide chain with an apparent molecular mass of 37 kDa. Purified rabbit IgG were shown to be specific for Sub6 using ELISA.Conclusion: We have characterized for the first time Sub6 from a dermatophyte species as a recombinant secreted active enzyme and purified it until homogeneity. Active rSub6 and Sub6 specific antiserum will be used to further study the role of M. canis Sub6 protease in pathogenesis, notably the pattern of in vivo Sub6 secretion in different host species.

GENCODE: producing a reference annotation for ENCODE.

BACKGROUND: The GENCODE consortium was formed to identify and map all protein-coding genes within the ENCODE regions. This was achieved by a combination of initial manual annotation by the HAVANA team, experimental validation by the GENCODE consortium and a refinement of the annotation based on these experimental results. RESULTS: The GENCODE gene features are divided into eight different categories of which only the first two (known and novel coding sequence) are confidently predicted to be protein-coding genes. 5' rapid amplification of cDNA ends (RACE) and RT-PCR were used to experimentally verify the initial annotation. Of the 420 coding loci tested, 229 RACE products have been sequenced. They supported 5' extensions of 30 loci and new splice variants in 50 loci. In addition, 46 loci without evidence for a coding sequence were validated, consisting of 31 novel and 15 putative transcripts. We assessed the comprehensiveness of the GENCODE annotation by attempting to validate all the predicted exon boundaries outside the GENCODE annotation. Out of 1,215 tested in a subset of the ENCODE regions, 14 novel exon pairs were validated, only two of them in intergenic regions. CONCLUSION: In total, 487 loci, of which 434 are coding, have been annotated as part of the GENCODE reference set available from the UCSC browser. Comparison of GENCODE annotation with RefSeq and ENSEMBL show only 40% of GENCODE exons are contained within the two sets, which is a reflection of the high number of alternative splice forms with unique exons annotated. Over 50% of coding loci have been experimentally verified by 5' RACE for EGASP and the GENCODE collaboration is continuing to refine its annotation of 1% human genome with the aid of experimental validation.

Population genomics of eusocial insects: the costs of a vertebrate-like effective population size

The evolution of reproductive division of labour and social life in social insects has lead to the emergence of several life-history traits and adaptations typical of larger organisms: social insect colonies can reach masses of several kilograms, they start reproducing only when they are several years old, and can live for decades. These features and the monopolization of reproduction by only one or few individuals in a colony should affect molecular evolution by reducing the effective population size. We tested this prediction by analysing genome-wide patterns of coding sequence polymorphism and divergence in eusocial vs. noneusocial insects based on newly generated RNA-seq data. We report very low amounts of genetic polymorphism and an elevated ratio of nonsynonymous to synonymous changes - a marker of the effective population size - in four distinct species of eusocial insects, which were more similar to vertebrates than to solitary insects regarding molecular evolutionary processes. Moreover, the ratio of nonsynonymous to synonymous substitutions was positively correlated with the level of social complexity across ant species. These results are fully consistent with the hypothesis of a reduced effective population size and an increased genetic load in eusocial insects, indicating that the evolution of social life has important consequences at both the genomic and population levels.

The origins, evolution, and functional potential of alternative splicing in vertebrates.

Alternative splicing (AS) has the potential to greatly expand the functional repertoire of mammalian transcriptomes. However, few variant transcripts have been characterized functionally, making it difficult to assess the contribution of AS to the generation of phenotypic complexity and to study the evolution of splicing patterns. We have compared the AS of 309 protein-coding genes in the human ENCODE pilot regions against their mouse orthologs in unprecedented detail, utilizing traditional transcriptomic and RNAseq data. The conservation status of every transcript has been investigated, and each functionally categorized as coding (separated into coding sequence [CDS] or nonsense-mediated decay [NMD] linked) or noncoding. In total, 36.7% of human and 19.3% of mouse coding transcripts are species specific, and we observe a 3.6 times excess of human NMD transcripts compared with mouse; in contrast to previous studies, the majority of species-specific AS is unlinked to transposable elements. We observe one conserved CDS variant and one conserved NMD variant per 2.3 and 11.4 genes, respectively. Subsequently, we identify and characterize equivalent AS patterns for 22.9% of these CDS or NMD-linked events in nonmammalian vertebrate genomes, and our data indicate that functional NMD-linked AS is more widespread and ancient than previously thought. Furthermore, although we observe an association between conserved AS and elevated sequence conservation, as previously reported, we emphasize that 30% of conserved AS exons display sequence conservation below the average score for constitutive exons. In conclusion, we demonstrate the value of detailed comparative annotation in generating a comprehensive set of AS transcripts, increasing our understanding of AS evolution in vertebrates. Our data supports a model whereby the acquisition of functional AS has occurred throughout vertebrate evolution and is considered alongside amino acid change as a key mechanism in gene evolution.

Important role of ventromedial hypothalamic carnitine palmitoyltransferase-1a in the control of food intake

Carnitine palmitoyltransferase-1 (CPT-1) liver isoform or CPT-1a is implicated in CNS control of food intake. However, the exact brain nucleus site(s) in mediating this action of CPT-1a has not been identified. In this report, we assess the role of CPT-1a in hypothalamic ventromedial nucleus (VMN). We stereotaxically injected an adenoviral vector containing CPT-1a coding sequence into the VMN of rats to induce overexpression and activation of CPT-1a. The VMN-selective activation of CPT-1a induced orexigenic effect, suggesting CPT-1a in the VMN is involved in the central control of feeding. Intracerebroventricular administration of etomoxir, a CPT-1 inhibitor, decreases food intake. Importantly, in the animals with VMN-overexpression of a CPT-1a mutant that antagonizes the CPT-1 inhibition by etomoxir, the anorectic response to etomoxir was attenuated. This suggests that VMN is involved in mediating the anorectic effect of central inhibition of CPT-1a. In contrast, Arc overexpression of the mutant did not alter etomoxir-induced inhibition of food intake, suggesting that Arc CPT-1a does not play significant roles in this anorectic action. Furthermore, in the VMN, CPT-1a appears to act downstream of hypothalamic malonyl-CoA action of feeding. Finally, we show that in the VMN, CPT-1 activity altered in concert with fasting and refeeding states, supporting a physiological role of CPT-1a in mediating the control of feeding. Taking together, CPT-1a in the hypothalamic VMN appears to play an important role in the central control of food intake. VMN-selective modulation of CPT-1a activity may therefore be a promising strategy in controlling food intake and maintaining normal body weight.

Recurrent TET2 mutations in peripheral T-cell lymphomas correlate with TFH-like features and adverse clinical parameters.

Inactivating mutations of the Ten-Eleven Translocation 2 (TET2) gene were first identified in myeloid malignancies and more recently in peripheral T-cell lymphomas (PTCLs). In the present study, we investigated the presence of TET2 coding sequence mutations and their clinical relevance in a large cohort of 190 PTCL patients. TET2 mutations were identified in 40 of 86 (47%) cases of angioimmunoblastic T-cell lymphoma (AITL) and in 22 of 58 (38%) cases of peripheral T-cell lymphoma, not otherwise specified (PTCL-NOS), but were absent in all other PTCL entities, with the exception of 2 of 10 cases of enteropathy-associated T-cell lymphoma. Among PTCL-NOS, a heterogeneous group of lymphoma-comprising cases likely to derive from Th follicular (T(FH)) cells similarly to AITL, TET2 mutations were more frequent when PTCL-NOS expressed T(FH) markers and/or had features reminiscent of AITL (58% vs 24%, P = .01). In the AITL and PTCL-NOS subgroups, TET2 mutations were associated with advanced-stage disease, thrombocytopenia, high International Prognostic Index scores, and a shorter progression-free survival.

Prototypical Arthropod Gene Content and Genome Organisation in the Centipede Strigamia maritima

Myriapods (e.g., centipedes and millipedes) display a simple homonomous body plan relative to other arthropods. All members of the class are terrestrial, but they attained terrestriality independently of insects. Myriapoda is the only arthropod class not represented by a sequenced genome. We present an analysis of the genome of the centipede Strigamia maritima. It retains a compact genome that has undergone less gene loss and shuffling than previously sequenced arthropods, and many orthologues of genes conserved from the bilaterian ancestor that have been lost in insects. Our analysis locates many genes in conserved macro-synteny contexts, and many small-scale examples of gene clustering. We describe several examples where S. maritima shows different solutions from insects to similar problems. The insect olfactory receptor gene family is absent from S. maritima, and olfaction in air is likely effected by expansion of other receptor gene families. For some genes S. maritima has evolved paralogues to generate coding sequence diversity, where insects use alternate splicing. This is most striking for the Dscam gene, which in Drosophila generates more than 100,000 alternate splice forms, but in S. maritima is encoded by over 100 paralogues. We see an intriguing linkage between the absence of any known photosensory proteins in a blind organism and the additional absence of canonical circadian clock genes. The phylogenetic position of myriapods allows us to identify where in arthropod phylogeny several particular molecular mechanisms and traits emerged. For example, we conclude that juvenile hormone signalling evolved with the emergence of the exoskeleton in the arthropods and that RR-1 containing cuticle proteins evolved in the lineage leading to Mandibulata. We also identify when various gene expansions and losses occurred. The genome of S. maritima offers us a unique glimpse into the ancestral arthropod genome, while also displaying many adaptations to its specific life history.

Lack of mutations of exon 2 of the MEN1 gene in endocrine and nonendocrine sporadic tumors

In addition to the mutations that underlie most cases of the multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 (MEN1) syndrome, somatic mutations of the MEN1 gene have also been described in sporadic tumors like gastrinomas, insulinomas and bronchial carcinoid neoplasm. We examined exon 2 of this gene, where most of the mutations have been described, in 148 endocrine and nonendocrine sporadic tumors. DNA was obtained by phenol/chloroform extraction and ethanol precipitation from 92 formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded samples, and from 40 fresh tumor tissue samples. We used 5 pairs of primers to encompass the complete coding sequence of exon 2 of the MEN1 gene that was screened by the polymerase chain reaction-single-stranded conformation polymorphism (PCR-SSCP) technique in 78 sporadic thyroid cancers: 28 follicular adenomas, 35 papillary carcinomas, 14 follicular carcinomas, and 1 anaplastic thyroid carcinoma. We also examined 46 adrenal lesions (3 hyperplasias, 3 adenomas and 35 adrenocortical carcinomas, 2 pheochromocytomas, 2 ganglioneuroblastomas, and 1 lymphoma) and 24 breast cancers (6 noninvasive, 16 infiltrating ductal, and 2 invasive lobular tumors). The PCR product of 5 tumors suspected to present band shifts by SSCP was cloned. Direct sense and antisense sequencing did not identify mutations. These results suggest that the MEN1 gene is not important in breast, thyroid or adrenal sporadic tumorigenesis. Because the frequency of mutations varies significantly among tumor subgroups and allelic deletions are frequently observed at 11q13 in thyroid and adrenal cancers, another tumor suppressor gene residing in this region is likely to be involved in the tumorigenesis of these neoplasms.

Mutations in SRY and WT1 genes required for gonadal development are not responsible for XY partial gonadal dysgenesis

The WT1 transcription factor regulates SRY expression during the initial steps of the sex determination process in humans, activating a gene cascade leading to testis differentiation. In addition to causing Wilms' tumor, mutations in WT1 are often responsible for urogenital defects in men, while SRY mutations are mainly related to 46,XY pure gonadal dysgenesis. In order to evaluate their role in abnormal testicular organogenesis, we screened for SRY and WT1 gene mutations in 10 children with XY partial gonadal dysgenesis, 2 of whom with a history of Wilms' tumor. The open reading frame and 360 bp of the 5' flanking sequence of the SRY gene, and the ten exons and intron boundaries of the WT1 gene were amplified by PCR of genomic DNA. Single-strand conformation polymorphism was initially used for WT1 mutation screening. Since shifts in fragment migration were only observed for intron/exon 4, the ten WT1 exons from all patients were sequenced manually. No mutations were detected in the SRY 5' untranslated region or within SRY open-reading frame sequences. WT1 sequencing revealed one missense mutation (D396N) in the ninth exon of a patient who also had Wilms' tumor. In addition, two silent point mutations were found in the first exon including one described here for the first time. Some non-coding sequence variations were detected, representing one new (IVS4+85A>G) and two already described (-7ATG T>G, IVS9-49 T>C) single nucleotide polymorphisms. Therefore, mutations in two major genes required for gonadal development, SRY and WT1, are not responsible for XY partial gonadal dysgenesis.

Defence of Agaricus bisporus against toxic secondary metabolites from Trichoderma aggressivum.

Trichoderma spp are effective competitors against other fungi because they are mycoparasitic and produce hydrolytic enzymes and secondary metabolites that inhibit the growth of their competitors. Inhibitory compounds produced by Trichoderma aggressivum, the causative agent of green mold disease, are more toxic to the hybrid off-white strains of Agaricus bisporus than the commercial brown strains, consistent with the commercial brown strain’s increased resistance to the disease. This project looked at the response of hybrid off-white and commercial brown strains of A. bisporus to the presence of T. aggressivum metabolites with regard to three A. bisporus genes: laccase 1, laccase 2, and manganese peroxidase. The addition of T. aggressivum toxic metabolites had no significant effect on MnP or lcc1 transcript abundance. Alternatively, laccase 2 appears to be involved in resistance to T. aggressivum because the presence of T. aggressivum metabolites results in higher lcc2 transcript abundance and laccase activity, especially in the commercial brown strain. The difference in laccase expression and activity between A. bisporus strains was not a result of regulatory or coding sequence differences. Alteration of laccase transcription by RNAi resulted in transformants with variable levels of laccase transcript abundance. Transformants with a low number of lcc transcripts were very sensitive to T. aggressivum toxins, while those with a high number of lcc transcripts had increased resistance. These results indicated that laccase activity, in particular that encoded by lcc2, serves as a defense response of A. bisporus to T. aggressivum toxins and contributes to green mold disease resistance in commercial brown strains.

Caractérisation et étude d'un élément régulateur du gène codant pour le récepteur à la vasopressine de type 2

Thèse réalisée en cotutelle avec l'Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris VI, France

Rôle de la structure du génome viral sur la réplication du virus de l’hépatite C.

Le virus de l'hépatite C (VHC) touche 3% de la population mondiale et environ 30% des patients chroniquement infectés développeront une fibrose hépatique. Son génome est un ARN simple brin de polarité positive qui possède un cadre ouvert de lecture flanqué de deux régions non traduites hautement conservées. Différents facteurs peuvent influencer le cycle de réplication du VHC. Deux d’entre eux ont été étudiés dans cette thèse. Tout d'abord, nous nous sommes intéressés à l'effet des structures secondaires et tertiaires du génome sur la réplication du VHC. Les extrémités 5' et 3' du génome contiennent des structures ARN qui régulent la traduction et la réplication du VHC. Le 3'UTR est un élément structural très important pour la réplication virale. Cette région est constituée d’une région variable, d’une séquence poly(U/C) et d’un domaine hautement conservé appelé région X. Des études in vitro ont montré que le 3'UTR possède plusieurs structures ARN double brin. Cependant, les structures ARN telles qu'elles existent dans le 3'UTR dans un contexte de génome entier et dans des conditions biologiques étaient inconnues. Pour élucider cette question, nous avons développé une méthode in situ pour localiser les régions ARN simple brin et double brin dans le 3'UTR du génome du VHC. Comme prédit par les études antérieures, nous avons observé qu’in situ la région X du 3’UTR du génome présente des éléments ARN double brin. Étonnamment, lorsque la séquence poly (U/UC) est dans un contexte de génome entier, cette région forme une structure ARN double brin avec une séquence située en dehors du 3'UTR, suggérant une interaction ARN-ARN distale. Certaines études ont démontré que des structures ARN présentes aux extrémités 5’ et 3' du génome du VHC régulent à la fois la traduction et la réplication du VHC. Cela suggère qu'il y aurait une interaction entre les extrémités du génome qui permettrait de moduler ces deux processus. Dans ce contexte, nous avons démontré l'existence d'une interaction distale ARN-ARN, impliquant le domaine II du 5'UTR et la séquence codante de NS5B du génome du VHC. En outre, nous avons démontré que cette interaction joue un rôle dans la réplication de l'ARN viral. Parallèlement, nous avons étudié l'impact d'une molécule immuno-modulatrice sur la réplication du VHC. La fibrose hépatique est une manifestation majeure de l’infection par le VHC. Hors, il a été montré qu'une molécule immuno-modulatrice appelée thalidomide atténuait la fibrose chez les patients infectés par le VHC. Cependant, son impact sur la réplication virale était inconnu. Ainsi, nous avons étudié l'effet de cette molécule sur la réplication du VHC in vitro et nous avons démontré que la thalidomide active la réplication du virus en inhibant la voie de signalisation de NF-kB. Ces résultats soulignent l’importance de la voie de signalisation NF-kB dans le contrôle de la réplication du VHC, et sont à prendre en considération dans l’établissement d’un traitement contre la fibrose hépatique.

Typage de la classe génotypique du gène PRDM9 à partir de données de séquençage de Nouvelle Génération

Les positions des évènements de recombinaison s’agrègent ensemble, formant des hotspots déterminés en partie par la protéine à évolution rapide PRDM9. En particulier, ces positions de hotspots sont déterminées par le domaine de doigts de zinc (ZnF) de PRDM9 qui reconnait certains motifs d’ADN. Les allèles de PRDM9 contenant le ZnF de type k ont été préalablement associés avec une cohorte de patients affectés par la leucémie aigüe lymphoblastique. Les allèles de PRDM9 sont difficiles à identifier à partir de données de séquençage de nouvelle génération (NGS), en raison de leur nature répétitive. Dans ce projet, nous proposons une méthode permettant la caractérisation d’allèles de PRDM9 à partir de données de NGS, qui identifie le nombre d’allèles contenant un type spécifique de ZnF. Cette méthode est basée sur la corrélation entre les profils représentant le nombre de séquences nucléotidiques uniques à chaque ZnF retrouvés chez les lectures de NGS simulées sans erreur d’une paire d’allèles et chez les lectures d’un échantillon. La validité des prédictions obtenues par notre méthode est confirmée grâce à analyse basée sur les simulations. Nous confirmons également que la méthode peut correctement identifier le génotype d’allèles de PRDM9 qui n’ont pas encore été identifiés. Nous conduisons une analyse préliminaire identifiant le génotype des allèles de PRDM9 contenant un certain type de ZnF dans une cohorte de patients atteints de glioblastomes multiforme pédiatrique, un cancer du cerveau caractérisé par les mutations récurrentes dans le gène codant pour l’histone H3, la cible de l’activité épigénétique de PRDM9. Cette méthode ouvre la possibilité d’identifier des associations entre certains allèles de PRDM9 et d’autres types de cancers pédiatriques, via l’utilisation de bases de données de NGS de cellules tumorales.

Molecular characterization of a crustinlike antimicrobial peptide in the giant tiger shrimp, Penaeus monodon, and its expression profile in response to various immunostimulants and challenge with WSSV

A crustinlike antimicrobial peptide from the haemocytes of giant tiger shrimp, Penaeus monodon was partially characterized at the molecular level and phylogenetic analysis was performed. The partial coding sequence of 299 bp and 91 deduced amino acid residues possessed conserved cysteine residues characteristic of the shrimp crustins. Phylogenetic tree and sequence comparison clearly confirmed divergence of this crustinlike AMP from other shrimp crustins. The differential expression of the crustinlike AMP in P. monodon in response to the administration of various immunostimulants viz., two marine yeasts (Candida haemulonii S27 and Candida sake S165) and two bglucan isolates (extracted from C. haemulonii S27 and C. sake S165) were noted during the study. Responses to the application of two grampositive probiotic bacteria (Bacillus MCCB101 and Micrococcus MCCB104) were also observed. The immune profile was recorded preand postchallenge white spot syndrome virus (WSSV) by semiquantitative RTPCR. Expressions of seven WSSV genes were also observed for studying the intensity of viral infection in the experimental animals. The crustinlike AMP was found to be constitutively expressed in the animal and a significant downregulation could be noted postchallenge WSSV. Remarkable downregulation of the gene was observed in the immunostimulant fed animals prechallenge followed by a significant upregulation postchallenge WSSV. Tissuewise expression of crustinlike AMP on administration of C. haemulonii and Bacillus showed maximum transcripts in gill and intestine. The marine yeast, C. haemulonii and the probiotic bacteria, Bacillus were found to enhance the production of crustinlike AMP and confer significant protection to P. monodon against WSSV infection

Secuenciación de siguiente generación en mujeres afectadas por falla ovárica prematura no sindrómica para la identificación de nuevos genes etiológicos de la enfermedad y estudio funcional de la mutación p.thr943ile en adamts19

La infertilidad afecta en la actualidad a aproximadamente 1 de cada 7 parejas a nivel mundial. La falla ovárica prematura (FOP) es una condición común en la población femenina, afectando al 1% de mujeres menores de 40 años. La etiología de la FOP es idiopática entre el 50% y el 80% de los casos, lo que sugiere causas genéticas, epigenéticas y ambientales aún desconocidas. A pesar de los avances en las técnicas de cartografía genética y de sistematización de la técnica de Sanger, pocos genes etiológicos de FOP fueron identificados en los últimos 20 años. Este fracaso relativo se asoció principalmente a que cientos de genes, que abarcan grandes regiones del genoma, son candidatos pero la técnica de secuenciación directa sólo permite el análisis de unas 700bp en cada reacción. En el presente trabajo se empleó la secuenciación de siguiente generación (NGS) para la búsqueda de mutaciones en 70 genes candidatos que potencialmente contribuyen con el desarrollo de la patología. Se identificaron mutaciones en 3 de 12 pacientes. La paciente POF-7 presentaba una mutación no sinónima en el gen ADAMTS19 (c.2828C>T, p.Thr943Ile). La proteína ADAMTS19 se clasifica dentro de la familia ADAMTS como huérfana ya que no se ha identificado su sustrato. Mediante el sistema de doble hibrido en levaduras se buscó identificar las potenciales proteínas que interactúan con ADAMTS19. Permitió identificar, a partir de las versiones murinas, la interacción de Adamts19 y Col6a2. Para comprobar la interacción entre las proteínas ADAMTS19 y COL6A2 humanas se empleó el sistema de doble hibrido en células eucariotas. Los hallazgos no permitieron replicar los resultados obtenidos previamente. En síntesis de identificó una mutación potencialmente causal de FOP en un gen nuevo y una muy probable interacción entre ADAMTS19 y COL6A2.