Physical interaction between bacterial heat shock protein (Hsp) 90 and Hsp70 chaperones mediates their cooperative action to refold denatured proteins.

In eukaryotes, heat shock protein 90 (Hsp90) is an essential ATP-dependent molecular chaperone that associates with numerous client proteins. HtpG, a prokaryotic homolog of Hsp90, is essential for thermotolerance in cyanobacteria, and in vitro it suppresses the aggregation of denatured proteins efficiently. Understanding how the non-native client proteins bound to HtpG refold is of central importance to comprehend the essential role of HtpG under stress. Here, we demonstrate by yeast two-hybrid method, immunoprecipitation assays, and surface plasmon resonance techniques that HtpG physically interacts with DnaJ2 and DnaK2. DnaJ2, which belongs to the type II J-protein family, bound DnaK2 or HtpG with submicromolar affinity, and HtpG bound DnaK2 with micromolar affinity. Not only DnaJ2 but also HtpG enhanced the ATP hydrolysis by DnaK2. Although assisted by the DnaK2 chaperone system, HtpG enhanced native refolding of urea-denatured lactate dehydrogenase and heat-denatured glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase. HtpG did not substitute for DnaJ2 or GrpE in the DnaK2-assisted refolding of the denatured substrates. The heat-denatured malate dehydrogenase that did not refold by the assistance of the DnaK2 chaperone system alone was trapped by HtpG first and then transferred to DnaK2 where it refolded. Dissociation of substrates from HtpG was either ATP-dependent or -independent depending on the substrate, indicating the presence of two mechanisms of cooperative action between the HtpG and the DnaK2 chaperone system.

Arabidopsis Basic Helix-Loop-Helix Transcription Factors MYC2, MYC3, and MYC4 Regulate Glucosinolate Biosynthesis, Insect Performance, and Feeding Behavior.

Arabidopsis thaliana plants fend off insect attack by constitutive and inducible production of toxic metabolites, such as glucosinolates (GSs). A triple mutant lacking MYC2, MYC3, and MYC4, three basic helix-loop-helix transcription factors that are known to additively control jasmonate-related defense responses, was shown to have a highly reduced expression of GS biosynthesis genes. The myc2 myc3 myc4 (myc234) triple mutant was almost completely devoid of GS and was extremely susceptible to the generalist herbivore Spodoptera littoralis. On the contrary, the specialist Pieris brassicae was unaffected by the presence of GS and preferred to feed on wild-type plants. In addition, lack of GS in myc234 drastically modified S. littoralis feeding behavior. Surprisingly, the expression of MYB factors known to regulate GS biosynthesis genes was not altered in myc234, suggesting that MYC2/MYC3/MYC4 are necessary for direct transcriptional activation of GS biosynthesis genes. To support this, chromatin immunoprecipitation analysis showed that MYC2 binds directly to the promoter of several GS biosynthesis genes in vivo. Furthermore, yeast two-hybrid and pull-down experiments indicated that MYC2/MYC3/MYC4 interact directly with GS-related MYBs. This specific MYC-MYB interaction plays a crucial role in the regulation of defense secondary metabolite production and underlines the importance of GS in shaping plant interactions with adapted and nonadapted herbivores.

Interactome analysis reveals that FAM161A, deficient in recessive retinitis pigmentosa, is a component of the Golgi-centrosomal network.

Defects in FAM161A, a protein of unknown function localized at the cilium of retinal photoreceptor cells, cause retinitis pigmentosa, a form of hereditary blindness. By using different fragments of this protein as baits to screen cDNA libraries of human and bovine retinas, we defined a yeast two-hybrid-based FAM161A interactome, identifying 53 bona fide partners. In addition to statistically significant enrichment in ciliary proteins, as expected, this interactome revealed a substantial bias towards proteins from the Golgi apparatus, the centrosome and the microtubule network. Validation of interaction with key partners by co-immunoprecipitation and proximity ligation assay confirmed that FAM161A is a member of the recently recognized Golgi-centrosomal interactome, a network of proteins interconnecting Golgi maintenance, intracellular transport and centrosome organization. Notable FAM161A interactors included AKAP9, FIP3, GOLGA3, KIFC3, KLC2, PDE4DIP, NIN and TRIP11. Furthermore, analysis of FAM161A localization during the cell cycle revealed that this protein followed the centrosome during all stages of mitosis, likely reflecting a specific compartmentalization related to its role at the ciliary basal body during the G0 phase. Altogether, these findings suggest that FAM161A's activities are probably not limited to ciliary tasks but also extend to more general cellular functions, highlighting possible novel mechanisms for the molecular pathology of retinal disease.

Orthologous and heterologous expression of a protein from Saccharomyces cerevisiae: Optimization for a biotechnological application

In this thesis (TFG) the results of the comparison between different methods to obtain a recombinant protein, by orthologous and heterologous expression, are exposed. This study will help us to identify the best way to express and purify a recombinant protein that will be used for biotechnology applications. In the first part of the project the goal was to find the best expression and purification system to obtain the recombinant protein of interest. To achieve this objective, a system expression in bacteria and in yeast was designed. The DNA was cloned into two different expression vectors to create a fusion protein with two different tags, and the expression of the protein was induced by IPTG or glucose. Additionally, in yeast, two promoters where used to express the protein, the one corresponding to the same protein (orthologous expression), and the ENO2 promoter (heterologous expression). The protein of interest is a NAD-dependent enzyme so, in a second time, its specific activity was evaluated by coenzyme conversion. The results of the TFG suggest that, comparing the model organisms, bacteria are more efficient than yeast because the quantity of protein obtained is higher and better purified. Regarding yeast, comparing the two expression mechanisms that were designed, heterologous expression works much better than the orthologous expression, so in case that we want to use yeast as expression model for the protein of interest, ENO2 will be the best option. Finally, the enzymatic assays, done to compare the effectiveness of the different expression mechanisms respect to the protein activity, revealed that the protein purified in yeast had more activity in converting the NAD coenzyme.

Novel Players in the Integrin Signaling Orchestra: TCPTP and MDGI

Metastases are the major cause of cancer deaths. Tumor cell dissemination from the primary tumor utilizes dysregulated cellular adhesion and upregulated proteolytic degradation of the extracellular matrix for progeny formation in distant organs. Integrins are transmembrane adhesive receptors mediating cellcell and cellmatrix interactions that are crucial for regulating cell migration, invasion, proliferation, and survival. Consequently, increased integrin activity is associated with augmented migration and invasion capacity in several cancer types. Heterodimeric integrins consist of an alpha - and beta-subunit that are held together in a bent conformation when the receptor is inactive, but extension and separation of subdomains is observed during receptor activation. Either inside-out or outside-in activation of receptors is possible through the intracellular molecule binding to an integrin cytoplasmic domain or extracellular ligand association with an integrin ectodomain, respectively. Several regulatory binding partners have been characterized for integrin cytoplasmic beta-domains, but the regulators interacting with the cytoplasmic alpha-domains have remained elusive. In this study, we performed yeast two-hybrid screens to identify novel binding partners for the cytoplasmic integrin alpha-domains. Further examination of two plausible candidates revealed a significant coregulatory role of an integrin alpha-subunit for cellular signaling processes. T-cell protein tyrosine phosphatase (TCPTP) showed a specific interaction with the cytoplasmic tail of integrin alpha1. This association stimulated TCPTP phosphatase activity, leading to negative regulation of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) signaling and diminished anchorage-independent growth. Another candidate, mammary-derived growth inhibitor (MDGI), exhibited binding to several different integrin cytoplasmic alpha-tails through a conserved GFFKR sequence. MDGI overexpression in breast cancer cells altered EGFR trafficking and caused a remarkable accumulation of EGFR in the cytoplasm. We further demonstrated in vivo that MDGI expression induced a novel form of anti-EGFR therapy resistance. Moreover, MDGI binding to α-tails retained integrin in an inactive conformation attenuating integrin-mediated adhesion, migration, and invasion. In agreement with these results, sustained MDGI expression in breast cancer patients correlated with an increased 10-year distant disease-free survival. Taken together, the integrin signaling network is far from a complete view and future work will doubtless broaden our understanding further.

A calcineurin inhibitory protein overexpressed in Down's syndrome interacts with the product of a ubiquitously expressed transcript

The Down's syndrome candidate region 1 (DSCR1) protein, encoded by a gene located in the human chromosome 21, interacts with calcineurin and is overexpressed in Down's syndrome patients. As an approach to clarifying a putative function for this protein, in the present study we used the yeast two-hybrid system to identify DSCR1 partners. The two-hybrid system is a method that allows the identification of protein-protein interactions through reconstitution of the activity of the yeast GAL 4 transcriptional activator. The gene DSCR1 fused to the GAL 4 binding domain (BD) was used to screen a human fetal brain cDNA library cloned in fusion with the GAL 4 activation domain (AD). Three positive clones were found and sequence analysis revealed that all the plasmids coded for the ubiquitously expressed transcript (UXT). UXT, which is encoded in human Xp11, is a 157-amino acid protein present in both cytosol and nucleus of the cells. This positive interaction of DSCR1 and UXT was confirmed in vivo by mating the yeast strain AH109 (MATa)expressing AD-UXT with the strain Y187 (MATalpha) expressing BD-DSCR1, and in vitro by co-immunoprecipitation experiments. These results may help elucidate a new function for DSCR1 and its participation in Down's syndrome pathogenesis.

TNNI3K is a novel mediator of myofilament function and phosphorylates cardiac troponin I

The phosphorylation of cardiac troponin I (cTnI) plays an important role in the contractile dysfunction associated with heart failure. Human cardiac troponin I-interacting kinase (TNNI3K) is a novel cardiac-specific functional kinase that can bind to cTnI in a yeast two-hybrid screen. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether TNNI3K can phosphorylate cTnI at specific sites and to examine whether the phosphorylation of cTnI caused by TNNI3K can regulate cardiac myofilament contractile function. Co-immunoprecipitation was performed to confirm that TNNI3K could interact with cTnI. Kinase assays further indicated that TNNI3K did not phosphorylate cTnI at Ser23/24 and Ser44, but directly phosphorylated Ser43 and Thr143 in vitro. The results obtained for adult rat cardiomyocytes also indicated that enhanced phosphorylation of cTnI at Ser43 and Thr143 correlated with rTNNI3K (rat TNNI3K) overexpression, and phosphorylation was reduced when rTNNI3K was knocked down. To determine the contractile function modulated by TNNI3K-mediated phosphorylation of cTnI, cardiomyocyte contraction was studied in adult rat ventricular myocytes. The contraction of cardiomyocytes increased with rTNNI3K overexpression and decreased with rTNNI3K knockdown. We conclude that TNNI3K may be a novel mediator of cTnI phosphorylation and contribute to the regulation of cardiac myofilament contraction function.

Pathogenèse moléculaire de la neuropathie sensitive et motrice héréditaire avec agénésie du corps calleux

La neuropathie sensitive et motrice héréditaire avec agénésie du corps calleux (NSMH/ACC) se traduit par une atteinte neurodégénérative sévère associée à des anomalies développementales dans le système nerveux central et du retard mental. Bien que rare dans le monde, ce désordre autosomique récessif est particulièrement fréquent dans la population Québécoise du Canada Français du fait d’un effet fondateur. L’unique étude réalisée sur la mutation québécoise du gène qui code pour le co-transporteur de potassiumchlore 3 (KCC3) a montré qu’il y a une perte de fonction de la protéine. Cependant, la maladie est également retrouvée hors du Québec et il reste encore à élucider les pathomécanismes mis en jeu. Nous avons donc séquencé les 26 exons du gène KCC3 chez des individus recrutés dans le monde entier et suspectés d’être atteints de la maladie. Nous avons ainsi identifié trois nouvelles mutations. L’étude fonctionnelle de ces mutations nous a confirmé la perte de fonction systématique des co-transporteurs mutés. Puisque l’inactivation de KCC3 se produit majoritairement via l’élimination de segments peptidiques en C-terminus, nous avons concentré notre attention sur l’identification des interactions qui s’y produisent. À l’aide d’approches double hybride, pull-down et immunomarquage, nous avons déterminé que KCC3 interagit avec la créatine kinase CK-B et que cette interaction est perturbée par les mutations tronquantes. De plus, l’utilisation d’un inhibiteur de créatine kinase inactive KCC3, ce qui démontre qu’il existe bien un lien fonctionnel et pathologique entre KCC3 et ses partenaires C-terminaux. Nous avons aussi identifié des anomalies majeures de localisation membranaire des KCC3 mutés. Que KCC3 soit tronqué ou pleine longueur, sa distribution subcellulaire est affectée dans des cellules en culture, dans les ovocytes de Xenopes et dans des échantillons de cerveau de patients. La perte d’interaction entre KCC3 et CK-B et/ou les défauts de transit intracellulaire de KCC3 sont donc les mécanismes pathologiques majeurs de la NSMH/ACC.

Régulation de l’identité des membres postérieurs par le facteur de transcription à boîte T Tbx4

Bien que partageant une homologie structurelle évidente, les membres antérieurs (MA) sont toujours différents des membres postérieurs (MP). Ceci suggère l’existence d’un programme générique de formation d’un membre, un bauplan, qui doit être modulé de façon spécifique pour engendrer cette différence antéro-postérieure de l’identité. Nous avons donc voulu identifier les mécanismes déployés durant l’évolution pour permettre la mise en place de l’identité des membres. Le laboratoire avait précédemment caractérisé, chez les souris où le gène Pitx1 est inactivé, une transformation partielle des MP en MA couplée à une perte de croissance. Nous avons donc cherché à comprendre les mécanismes en aval de Pitx1 dans la détermination de l’identité postérieure. Notre démarche nous a permis d’identifier les gènes affectés par la perte de Pitx1 dans les MP, où nous avons confirmé une dérégulation de l’expression de Tbx4. Tbx4 et Tbx5 sont des candidats évidents pour déterminer l’identité, leur expression étant restreinte aux MP et MA, respectivement, mais leur implication dans ce processus était sujette à controverse. Nous avons donc évalué l’apport de Tbx4 en aval de Pitx1 dans les processus d’identité en restaurant son expression dans les MP des souris Pitx1-/-. Ce faisant, nous avons pu montrer que Tbx4 est capable de pallier la perte de Pitx1 dans le MP, en rétablissant à la fois les caractères d’identité postérieure et la croissance. En parallèle, nous avons montré que Tbx5 était capable de rétablir la croissance mais non l’identité des MP Pitx1-/-, démontrant ainsi de façon définitive une propriété propre à Tbx4 dans la détermination de l’identité des membres postérieure. La caractérisation de l’activité transcriptionnelle de Tbx4 et Tbx5 nous a permis de mettre en évidence un domaine activateur conservé mais aussi un domaine spécifique à Tbx4, répresseur de la transcription. Par ailleurs, une mutation faux-sens de TBX4 dans les patients atteints du syndrome coxo-podo-patellaire, TBX4Q531R, inactive le domaine répresseur, empêchant la compensation de l’identité mais non de la croissance des MP dépourvus de Pitx1, démontrant l’importance de cette fonction dans l’identité postérieure. La caractérisation de l’activité répressive de Tbx4, qui se manifeste seulement dans les membres postérieurs démontre l’importance de cette fonction dans l’identité postérieure. Nous avons aussi été en mesure d’identifier un corépresseur qui est suffisant pour supporter cette activité de Tbx4. Enfin, nous avons pu aussi démontrer l’activité transcriptionnelle d’un représentant du gène ancestral, présent chez Amphioxus, qui se comporte strictement comme un activateur et semble dépourvu du domaine répresseur. En somme, nous avons précisé le rôle de Tbx4 et Tbx5, ainsi que leur mécanisme, dans la détermination de l’identité des membres. Globalement, nos travaux permettent d’élaborer une théorie où une divergence d’activité transcriptionnelle de Tbx4 et Tbx5 est responsable de l’identité des membres et même entrevoir que cette divergence d’activité soit à la base de son apparition durant l’évolution.

Les partenaires d'interactions de Cirhin, la protéine portant la mutation responsable de la Cirrhose Amérindienne Infantile (NAIC)

La Cirrhose Amérindienne Infantile (CAI, NAIC) est une forme de cholestase non-syndromique héréditaire à transmission autosomique récessive, décrite uniquement chez les enfants autochtones du Nord-Ouest québécois et issue d’un effet fondateur. La maladie se présente d’abord sous la forme d’une jaunisse néonatale chez un enfant autrement en bonne santé, qui progresse en cirrhose de type biliaire dans l’enfance et dans l’adolescence. Le taux de survie à l’âge adulte est inférieur à 50% et la seule thérapie efficace à ce jour pour les patients avancés dans la maladie demeure la transplantation hépatique. Les recherches antérieures menées par le groupe ont permis d’identifier le locus ainsi que le gène responsable de NAIC, qui encode la protéine nucléolaire Cirhin. Cirhin est exprimée uniquement dans le foie et tous les patients sont homozygotes pour la mutation R565W. La fonction de Cirhin est inconnue, mais les motifs WD40 retrouvés dans sa séquence indiquent qu’elle participerait à des interactions protéine-protéine et serait impliquée dans un mécanisme moléculaire de base. Cirhin interagit avec la protéine nucléaire Cirip, qui a un effet positif important sur la transcription de l’élément activateur HIV-1 LTR et qui a un rôle dans la prolifération cellulaire. L’interaction de Cirhin et Cirip est affectée par la mutation R565W. À l’aide de la technique du double hybride chez la levure, la protéine nucléolaire Nol11 a été identifiée comme étant un partenaire d’interaction de Cirhin. Par son interaction avec MARK3 et c-Myc, Nol11 serait impliquée dans des processus cellulaires tels que le contrôle du cycle cellulaire, la polarité, la croissance cellulaire et possiblement la biogenèse des ribosomes. La portion C-terminale de Nol11 interagirait avec Cirhin, et la mutation R565W abolit cette interaction. Le résidu R565 serait donc important pour la fonctionnalité de Cirhin.

Not the outside but the inside matters : functional analysis of Capricious and Tartan during Drosophila tracheal morphogenesis

The tubular structures, which transport essential gases, liquids, or cells from one site to another, are shared among various divergent organisms. These highly organized tubular networks include lung, kidney, vasculature and mammary gland in mammals as well as trachea and salivary gland in Drosophila melanogaster. Many questions regarding the tubular morphogenesis cannot be addressed sufficiently by investigating the mammalian organs because their structures are extremely complex and therefore, systematic analyses of genetic and cellular programs guiding the development is not possible. In contrast, the Drosophila tracheal development provides an excellent model system since many molecular markers and powerful tools for genetic manipulations are available. Two mechanisms were shown to be important for the outgrowth of tracheal cells: the FGF signaling pathway and the interaction between the tracheal cells and the surrounding mesodermal cells. The Drosophila FGF ligand encoded by branchless (bnl) is localized in groups of cells near tracheal metameres. The tracheal cells expressing the FGF receptor breathless (btl) respond to these sources of FGF ligand and extend towards them. However, this FGF signaling pathway is not sufficient for the formation of continuous dorsal trunk, the only muticellular tube in tracheal system. Recently, it was found out that single mesodermal cells called bridge-cells are essential for the formation of continuous dorsal trunk as they direct the outgrowth of dorsal trunk cells towards the correct targets. The results in this PhD thesis demonstrate that a cell adhesion molecule Capricious (Caps), which is specifically localized on the surface of bridge-cells, plays an essential role in guiding the outgrowing dorsal trunk cells towards their correct targets. When caps is lacking, some bridge-cells cannot stretch properly towards the adjacent posterior tracheal metameres and thus fail to interconnect the juxtaposing dorsal trunk cells. Consequently, discontinuous dorsal trunks containing interruptions at several positions are formed. On the other hand, when caps is ectopically expressed in the mesodermal cells through a twi-GAL4 driver, these mesodermal cells acquire a guidance function through ectopic caps and misguide the outgrowing dorsal trunk cells in abnormal directions. As a result, disconnected dorsal trunks are formed. These loss- and gain-of-function studies suggest that Caps presumably establishes the cell-to-cell contact between the bridge-cells and the tracheal cells and thereby mediates directly the guidance function of bridge-cells. The most similar protein known to Caps is another cell adhesion molecule called Tartan (Trn). Interestingly, trn is expressed in the mesodermal cells but not in the bridge-cells. When trn is lacking, the outgrowth of not only the dorsal trunks but also the lateral trunks are disrupted. However, in contrast to the ectopic expression of caps, the misexpression of trn does not affect tracheal development. Whereas Trn requires only its extracellular domain to mediate the matrix function, Caps requires both its extracellular and intracellular domains to function as a guidance molecule in the bridge-cells. These observations suggest that Trn functions differently from Caps during tracheal morphogenesis. Presumably, Trn mediates a matrix function of mesodermal cells, which support the tracheal cells to extend efficiently through the surrounding mesodermal tissue. In order to determine which domains dictate the functional specificity of Caps, two hybrid proteins CapsEdTrnId, which contains the Caps extracellular domain and the Trn intracellular domain, and TrnEdCapsId, which consists of the Trn extracellular domain and the Caps intracellular domain, were constructed. Gain of function and rescue experiments with these hybrid proteins suggest on one hand that the extracellular domains of Caps and Trn are functionally redundant and on the other hand that the intracellular domain dictates the functional specificity of Caps. In order to identify putative interactors of Caps, yeast two-hybrid screening was performed. An in vivo interaction assay in yeast suggests that Ras64B interacts specifically with the Caps intracellular domain. In addition, an in vitro binding assay reveals a direct interaction between an inactive form of Ras64B and the Caps intracellular domain. ras64B, which encodes a small GTPase, is expressed in the mesodermal cells concurrently as caps. Finally, a gain-of-function study with the constitutively active Ras64B suggests that Ras64B presumably functions downstream of Caps. All these results suggest consistently that the small GTPase Ras64B binds specifically to the Caps intracellular domain and may thereby mediate the guidance function of Caps.

Funktionsanalysen der Domänen des Vacuolin B und die Rolle des filamentösen Actins am Vacuolin B-positiven Kompartiment im endocytotischen Transit in Dictyostelium discoideum

Ähnlich wie in Säugerzellen ist das neutrale Postlysosom in Dictyostelium discoideum von einem Coat aus filamentösem Actin umgeben. In dieser Arbeit wurde der Frage nach der Funktion dieses Actin-Cytoskeletts am späten Endosom nachgegangen. Hierzu wurde zunächst eine Analyse der Domänen des Vacuolin B durchgeführt, das als bisher spätester bekannter Marker im Endocytoseweg in Dictyostelium discoideum das neutrale, postlysosomale Kompartiment dekoriert. In einer Yeast Two Hybrid-Analyse wurden die Bereiche des Vacuolin B identifiziert, die für eine Selbst-Interaktion des Proteins notwendig und ausreichend sind. Es handelt sich dabei um die coiled-coil-Domäne und einen daran anschließenden, 18 Aminosäuren langen, alpha-helicalen Abschnitt. Diesem helicalen Bereich scheint die Funktion einer modifizierenden, die coiled-coil-Ausbildung vermittelnden oder initiierenden Faltungseinheit zuzukommen. Sie weist jedoch nicht die typischen Merkmale einer trigger-Helix auf. Lokalisationsuntersuchungen mit GFP-Deletionskonstrukten zeigten, dass es einen Zusammenhang zwischen Interaktionsfähigkeit und Bindung des Vacuolin an die Oberfläche später Endosomen gibt: Eine korrekte Lokalisation und Membranassoziation waren nur dann zu beobachten, wenn in der Yeast Two Hybrid-Analyse eine Interaktion nachgewiesen werden konnte. Es wurden die für die Lokalisation und Assoziation mit der vacuolären Membran notwendigen Sequenzbereiche identifiziert; diese waren jedoch nicht hinreichend. Vermutlich sind hierfür auch Sequenzen des N-Terminus notwendig. Die erhobenen Daten legen weiterhin eine Bedeutung der hydrophoben Domäne des Vacuolin B für die korrekte Faltung des Proteins nahe. Im Anschluss an die Domänenanalyse wurde Vacuolin dazu benutzt, durch Herstellung von Hybridproteinen Actin-interagierende Proteine gezielt an das späte Endosom zu transportieren. Es wurde deren Einfluss auf den lokalen Actin Coat und den endocytotischen Transit untersucht. Zwei Actin-bindende Proteine mit depolymerisierender Wirkung konnten im Rahmen dieser Arbeit getestet werden, nämlich Severin und Cofilin. Die Schwächung des lokalen Actin Coats durch das Vorhandensein von Severin an der späten Vacuole war nicht eindeutig festzustellen. Severin am Postlysosom führte nicht zu einer Veränderung der Transitkinetik von Flüssigphasenmarker. Allerdings konnte ein Defekt in der Phagocytose festgestellt werden. Es könnte hierbei ein Zusammenhang zwischen der Mobilisierung von intrazellulärem Calcium während der Partikelaufnahme und der Calcium-abhängigen Regulation der Severin-Aktivität bestehen. Das Hybridprotein aus Vacuolin und Cofilin zeigte neben einer Assoziation mit der vacuolären Membran auch eine Lokalisation im Cytoplasma und Cortex der Zellen. Mit der Lokalisation im Cytoplasma und Cortex korrelierte eine Veränderung der endocytotischen Aktivität. Das Vacuolin-Cofilin-Fusionsprotein am Postlysosom rief einen Verlust des lokalen Actin Coats hervor. Dies führte zu einer traubenförmigen Assoziation der späten Endosomen; exocytotische Parameter blieben jedoch unbeeinflusst. Aufgrund der hier erhobenen Daten kann vermutet werden, dass der Actin Coat am Postlysosom dazu dient, eine Agglutination dieser Endosomen zu inhibieren. Dies könnte ein Schutzmechanismus zum Ausschluss von Docking- und Fusionsereignissen sein.

On the function of the Dictyostelium Argonaute A protein (AgnA) in epigenetic gene regulation

With molecular biology methods and bioinformatics, the Argonaute proteins in Dictyostelium discoideum were characterized, and the function of the AgnA protein in RNAi and DNA methylation was investigated, as well as cellular features. Also interaction partners of the PAZ-Piwi domain of AgnA (PAZ-PiwiAgnA) were discovered. The Dictyostelium genome encodes five Argonaute proteins, termed AgnA/B/C/D/E. The expression level of Argonaute proteins was AgnB/D/E > AgnA > AgnC. All these proteins contain the characteristic conserved of PAZ and Piwi domains. Fluorescence microscopy revealed that the overexpressed C-terminal GFP-fusion of PAZ-PiwiAgnA (PPWa-GFP) localized to the cytoplasm. Overexpression of PPWa-GFP leaded to an increased gene silencing efficiency mediated by RNAi but not by antisense RNA. This indicated that PAZ-PiwiAgnA is involved in the RNAi pathway, but not in the antisense pathway. An analysis of protein-protein interactions by a yeast-two-hybrid screen on a cDNA library from vegetatively grown Dictyostelium revealed that several proteins, such as EF2, EF1-I, IfdA, SahA, SamS, RANBP1, UAE1, CapA, and GpdA could interact with PAZ-PiwiAgnA. There was no interaction between PAZ-PiwiAgnA and HP1, HelF and DnmA detected by direct yeast-two-hybrid analysis. The fluorescence microscopy images showed that the overexpressed GFP-SahA or IfdA fusion proteins localized to both cytoplasm and nuclei, while the overexpressed GFP-SamS localized to the cytoplasm. The expression of SamS in AgnA knock down mutants was strongly down regulated on cDNA and mRNA level in, while the expression of SahA was only slightly down regulated. AgnA knock down mutants displayed defects in growth and phagocytosis, which suggested that AgnA affects also cell biological features. The inhibition of DNA methylation on DIRS-1 and Skipper retroelements, as well as the endogenous mvpB and telA gene, observed for the same strains, revealed that AgnA is involved in the DNA methylation pathway. Northern blot analysis showed that Skipper and DIRS-1 were rarely expressed in Ax2, but the expression of Skipper was upregulated in AgnA knock down mutants, while the expression of DIRS-1 was not changed. A knock out of the agnA gene failed even though the homologous recombination of the disruption construct occurred at the correct site, which indicated that there was a duplication of the agnA gene in the genome. The same phenomenon was also observed in ifdA knock out experiments.

DNA methylation in Dictyostelium discoideum

DNA methyltransferases of type Dnmt2 are a highly conserved protein family with enigmatic function. The aim of this work was to characterize DnmA, the Dnmt2 methyltransferase in Dictyostelium discoideum, and further to investigate its implication in DNA methylation and transcriptional gene silencing. The genome of the social amoeba Dictyostelium encodes DnmA as the sole DNA methyltransferase. The enzyme bears all ten characteristic DNA methyltransferase motifs in its catalytic domain. The DnmA mRNA was found by RT-PCR to be expressed during vegetative growth and down regulated during development. Investigations using fluorescence microscopy showed that both DnmA-myc and DnmA-GFP fusions predominantly localised to the nucleus. The function of DnmA remained initially unclear, but later experiment revealed that the enzyme is an active DNA methyltransferase responsible for all DNA (cytosine) methylation in Dictyostelium. Neither in gel retardation assays, nor by the yeast two hybrid system, clues on the functionality of DnmA could be obtained. However, immunological detection of the methylation mark with an α - 5mC antibody gave initial evidence that the DNA of Dictyostelium was methylated. Furthermore, addition of 5-aza-cytidine as demethylating agent to the Dictyostelium medium and subsequent in vitro incubation of the DNA isolated from these cells with recombinant DnmA showed that the enzyme binds slightly better to this target DNA. In order to investigate further the function of the protein, a gene knock-out for dnmA was generated. The gene was successfully disrupted by homologous recombination, the knock-out strain, however, did not show any obvious phenotype under normal laboratory conditions. To identify specific target sequences for DNA methylation, a microarray analysis was carried out. Setting a threshold of at least 1.5 fold for differences in the strength of gene expression, several such genes in the knock-out strain were chosen for further investigation. Among the up-regulated genes were the ESTs representing the gag and the RT genes respectively of the retrotransposon skipper. In addition Northern blot analysis confirmed the up-regulation of skipper in the DnmA knock-out strain. Bisufite treatment and sequencing of specific DNA stretches from skipper revealed that DnmA is responsible for methylation of mostly asymmetric cytosines. Together with skipper, DIRS-1 retrotransposon was found later also to be methylated but was not present on the microarray. Furthermore, skipper transcription was also up-regulated in strains that had genes disrupted encoding components of the RNA interference pathway. In contrast, DIRS 1 expression was not affected by a loss of DnmA but was strongly increased in the strain that had the RNA directed RNA polymerase gene rrpC disrupted. Strains generated by propagating the usual wild type Ax2 and the DnmA knock-out cells over 16 rounds in development were analyzed for transposon activity. Northern blot analysis revealed activation for skipper expression, but not for DIRS-1. A large number of siRNAs were found to be correspondent to the DIRS-1 sequence, suggesting concerted regulation of DIRS-1 expression by RNAi and DNA methylation. In contrast, no siRNAs corresponding to the standard skipper element were found. The data show that DNA methylation plays a crucial role in epigenetic gene regulation in Dictyostelium and that different, partially overlapping mechanisms control transposon silencing for skipper and DIRS-1. To elucidate the mechanism of targeting the protein to particular genes in the Dictyostelium genome, some more genes which were up-regulated in the DnmA knock-out strain were analyzed by bisulfite sequencing. The chosen genes are involved in the multidrug response in other species, but their function in Dictyostelium is uncertain. Bisulfite data showed that two of these genes were methylated at asymmetrical C-residues in the wild type, but not in DnmA knock-out cells. This suggested that DNA methylation in Dictyostelium is involved not only in transposon regulation but also in transcriptional silencing of specific genes.

Das ER-lokalisierte Protein Farinelli und seine möglichen Interaktionspartner in der Spermatogenese von Drosophila melanogaster

Dem Farinelli-Protein wird eine Funktion als hodenspezifisches VAP-Protein zugesprochen (Renner, 2001). Mit Hilfe des ER-Markers PDI konnte Fan eindeutig dem ER zugeordnet werden. Fan stellt dabei ein integrales Membranprotein dar, welches nur durch Detergenz- Behandlung in Lösung zu bringen war. Durch den Einsatz zweier Fragment-Konstrukte (fan∆MSP-GFP und fanMSP-GFP) von Fan wurde die Relevanz der MSP-Domäne für die männliche Fertilität dokumentiert. Das Fusionsprotein Fan∆MSP-GFP lag aufgrund der verbliebenen Transmembrandomäne weiterhin im ER vor. Dennoch konnte der sterile Phänotyp der fanJo-Männchen, die keinerlei Fan-Protein enthalten, durch das Einbringen des Fusionskonstrukts nicht gerettet werden. MSP-GFP für sich allein konnte keine Verbindung mit dem ER eingehen und zeigte eine diffuse Fluoreszenz. Im Rahmen der Dissertation wurden mehrere, durch das yeast two hybrid-System ermittelte, mögliche Interaktionspartner von Fan analysiert. Das Protein CG5194 konnte als einziges wie Fan dem ER zugeordnet werden. Seine Expression beschränkte sich aber auf die Spermatocytenphase und ist somit kürzer als die von Farinelli. Nach Einkreuzen der GFP-Fusionskonstrukte in die fan-Nullmutante konnte CG5194 nicht mehr am ER der Spermatocyten beobachtet werden, sondern lag innerhalb des Cytoplasmas diffus verteilt vor. Auch bei der Western Blot-Analyse konnte das Protein von CG5194 nur noch in der Überstand-Fraktion mit den ungebundenen Proteinen nachgewiesen werden. Lag in der fan-Nullmutante ausschließlich das Fan∆MSP-GFP-Fusionsprotein vor, konnte die ER-Lokalisation von CG5194 ebenfalls nicht beibehalten werden. Mit Hilfe einer Fragment-Analyse konnte gezeigt werden, dass in den männlichen Gonaden das erste Exon von CG5194 für die Interaktion mit Fan entscheidend ist. Innerhalb der Ovarien dagegen ist das zweite Exon für die Lokalisation im ER notwendig. Demzufolge ist neben einem anderen Interaktionspartner als Fan auch eine andere Domäne im Protein für die ER-Lokalisation in der weiblichen Keimbahn entscheidend. Durch den Einsatz von antisense- und RNAi-Konstrukten konnte ein steriler Phänotyp bei den Männchen erzeugt werden. Überraschenderweise zeigten die Tiere erst einen Defekt während der Spermatiden-Differenzierung. Bereits während der Diplomarbeit wurde 98A im Kopfbereich der elongierten Spermatiden nachgewiesen. Mittels einer DNA-Färbung sowie durch die Colokalisation mit dem Akrosom-Protein Sneaky wurde 98A dem Bereich des Akrosoms zugeordnet. Sneaky taucht jedoch bereits früher als 98A in den Keimzellen auf. Die Erzeugung eines sterilen Phänotyps durch den Einfluss eines RNAi-Konstrukts gelang nicht. Entweder ist 98A für die Fertilität von Drosophila nicht relevant oder aber seine Funktion kann von anderen Proteinen übernommen werden.