Women at work: nurse at monitoring station

Inscription: Verso: Women at work: miscellaneous occupations. Cardiac Intensive Care Unite, Douglas County Hospital, Alexandria, Minnesota.

Women at work: flight engineer.

Inscription: Verso: Women at work: miscellaneous occupations. Julia B. Canter, United Airlines, flight engineer.

Women at work: director of half-fare program for the handicapped.

Inscription: Verso: Women at work: miscellaneous occupations. Sandra Schnur, director of the half-fare program for the handicapped, New York.

Women at work: New York City bus driver.

Inscription: Verso: Women at work: miscellaneous occupations. Marie Frederick driving 104 bus, New York City.

Women at work: stockbrocker, E.F. Hutton.

Inscription: Verso: Women at work: miscellaneous occupations. Marilyn Male, stockbrocker, E.F. Hutton, New York.

Women at work: editorial consultant.

Inscription: Verso: Women at work: miscellaneous occupations. Angela Thompson, editorial consultant, ESL - National Art and Handicapped Project.

Women at work: personnel director interviewing applicant.

Inscription: Verso: Women at work: miscellaneous occupations. Gail Lewis, personnel directior interviewing applicant, Hertz Corp.

Women at work: Nurse and intern talk to patient, coronary-intensive care unit, Douglas County Hospital, Alexandria, Minnesota

Inscription: Verso: Women at work: miscellaneous occupations.

Women at work: National Paraplegia Foundation

Inscription: Verso: Women at work: miscellaneous occupations. Handicapped secretary, Denise Figueroa, at the National Paraplegia Foundation, New York.

Women at work: sound engineer.

Inscription: Verso: Women at work: miscellaneous occupations. Lula Shepherd, sound engineer, radio station, WMCA, New York.

Women at work: teenage photographer working in darkroom.

Inscription: Verso: Women at work: miscellaneous occupations. Rebecca Cooke, teenage photographer, New York.

Women at work: telephone repairer

Inscription: Verso: Women at work: miscellaneous occupations. Ilene Goldstein, telephone repairer, New York Telephone Co.

Influence of the perception of discrimination on women's work motivation

Nowadays, despite anti-discrimination policies, women suffer frequently from a lack of consideration from their male colleagues, altering their well-being and motivation to work. More precisely, perceived personal or groupal discrimination, could have a distinct influence on work motivation. Previous studies showed that the impact on women varies in function of the type of perceived discrimination (Bourguignon et al. 2006). Based on the self-categorization and the social identity theory, work motivation is differently structured as if employees categorized themselves as individuals or as part of a group. As a result, a different impact from personal and group discrimination on work motivation is expected. Moreover, it has been proved that typical men behavior is heavily associated with competence compared to women behavior (Marchand, Saint-Charles & Corbeil, 2007). Therefore, it is hypothesized that women with more masculine traits will suffer from less perceived discrimination, and work motivation. An online survey was created in order to collect data over work motivation, perceived personal and group discrimination. The respondents were also questioned on typical men and women behavior to determine their gender-conformity. To test our hypotheses, data were collected from 57 women stemming from the labour force, aged from 21 to 63 years old. Results indicate that perceived personal discrimination was negatively related to work motivation and that perceived group discrimination was negatively correlated with masculine behavior. Thereby, our study enhances the importance of work environment, and especially discrimination, on work motivation. This research also corroborates the self-categorization and the social identity theory framework to study these issues.

Work stress, smoking status and smoking intensity: an observational study of 46 190 employees

Study objective: To examine the relationship between work stress, as indicated by the job strain model and the effort-reward imbalance model, and smoking. Setting: Ten municipalities and 21 hospitals in Finland. Design and Participants: Binary logistic regression models for the prevalence of smoking were related to survey responses of 37 309 female and 8881 male Finnish public sector employees aged 17-65. Separate multinomial logistic regression models were calculated for smoking intensity for 8130 smokers. In addition, binary logistic regression models for ex-smoking were fitted among 16 277 former and current smokers. In all analyses, adjustments were made for age, basic education, occupational status, type of employment and marital status. Main results: Respondents with high effort-reward imbalance or lower rewards were more likely to be smokers. Among smokers, an increased likelihood of higher intensity of smoking was associated with higher job strain and higher effort-reward imbalance and their components such as low job control and low rewards. Smoking intensity was also higher in active jobs in women, in passive jobs and among employees with low effort expenditure. Among former and current smokers, high job strain, high effort-reward imbalance and high job demands were associated with a higher likelihood of being a current smoker. Lower effort was associated with a higher likelihood of ex-smoking. Conclusions: This evidence suggests an association between work stress and smoking and implies that smoking cessation programs may benefit from the taking into account the modification of stressful features of work environment. Key words: effort-reward imbalance; job strain; smoking. Abbreviations: OR, odds ratio; CI, confidence interval; SES, socioeconomic status

Effort-reward imbalance at work and the co-occurrence of lifestyle risk factors: cross-sectional survey in a sample of 36,127 public sector employees

Background In occupational life, a mismatch between high expenditure of effort and receiving few rewards may promote the co-occurrence of lifestyle risk factors, however, there is insufficient evidence to support or refute this hypothesis. The aim of this study is to examine the extent to which the dimensions of the Effort-Reward Imbalance (ERI) model – effort, rewards and ERI – are associated with the co-occurrence of lifestyle risk factors. Methods Based on data from the Finnish Public Sector Study, cross-sectional analyses were performed for 28,894 women and 7233 men. ERI was conceptualized as a ratio of effort and rewards. To control for individual differences in response styles, such as a personal disposition to answer negatively to questionnaires, occupational and organizational -level ecological ERI scores were constructed in addition to individual-level ERI scores. Risk factors included current smoking, heavy drinking, body mass index ≥25 kg/m2, and physical inactivity. Multinomial logistic regression models were used to estimate the likelihood of having one risk factor, two risk factors, and three or four risk factors. The associations between ERI and single risk factors were explored using binary logistic regression models. Results After adjustment for age, socioeconomic position, marital status, and type of job contract, women and men with high ecological ERI were 40% more likely to have simultaneously ≥3 lifestyle risk factors (vs. 0 risk factors) compared with their counterparts with low ERI. When examined separately, both low ecological effort and low ecological rewards were also associated with an elevated prevalence of risk factor co-occurrence. The results obtained with the individual-level scores were in the same direction. The associations of ecological ERI with single risk factors were generally less marked than the associations with the co-occurrence of risk factors. Conclusion This study suggests that a high ratio of occupational efforts relative to rewards may be associated with an elevated risk of having multiple lifestyle risk factors. However, an unexpected association between low effort and a higher likelihood of risk factor co-occurrence as well as the absence of data on overcommitment (and thereby a lack of full test of the ERI model) warrant caution in regard to the extent to which the entire ERI model is supported by our evidence.