Investigations of 2-alkyl-3-methoxypyrazines in three ladybug species and wine /

Investigations of 2-alkyl-3-methoxypyrazines (2-isopropyl-3-methoxypyra2ine, 2- secbutyl-3-methoxypyrazine and 2-isobutyl-3-niethoxypyrazine) in ladybug species {Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) and wine samples have been conducted. Headspace sampling coupled with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry was used to determine amounts of 2-alkyl-3-methoxypyra2ines in the ladybug species. Hippodamia convergens had the highest amount of alkybnethoxypyrazines, followed by Harmoma axyridis and the least in Coccinella septempunctata. Using a solvent extraction method, the precoccinelline alkaloid was found present in Hippodamia convergens and Coccinella septempunctata but not Harmonia axyridis. Steam distillation followed by a soHd phase extraction method as a sample preparation technique, enhanced detection while the isotope dilution method afforded accurate quantitation of the alkyknethoxypyrazines in the wine samples. Both ladybug-tainted and commercial wine samples were found to contain the 2- alkyl-3-methoxypyrazines. Wine samples prepared in 2001 generally contained higher levels than the corresponding 2003 samples. Levels of the 2-alkyl-3-methoxypyrazines found in the commercial wines ranged from a minimum value of 6 ng/L to 260 ±10 ng/L. Analyses revealed that for both ladybug species and wine samples, the 2- isopropyl-3-methoxypyrazine had the highest concentration, followed by 2-isobutyl- 3-methoxypyrazine and the least being the 2-secbutyl-3-methoxypyrazine. Possible contamination of the wine samples by ladybugs is thoroughly discussed. Furthermore, attempts to remove or reduce the levels of the alkylmethoxypyrazines with molecularly imprinted polymers from wine samples are presented in detail.

The impact of the Multicolor Asian Lady Beetle (Harmonia axyridis) on wine quality /

The Impact of the Multicolor Asian Lady Beetle (Harmonia axyridis) on Niagara Wine Quality The possible influence of Harmonia axyridis (the Multicolored Asian Lady Beetle) on the sensory properties of wine was investigated. H. axyridis beetles were added to white and red grape musts at a rate of 0, 1 or 10 per L, and a trained panel evaluated the finished wines using flavor-profiling techniques. Significant modification of both wine aroma and flavor characteristics were observed in the 10 beetlelL treatments, with smaller effects noted at the 1 beetlelL rate. Vinification in the presence of H. axyridis gave higher intensity scores for peanut, bell pepper and asparagus aromas and flavors in the white wines, and peanut, asparagus/bell pepper, and earthy/herbaceous aromas and flavors in the red wines. In addition, sweet, acid and bitter tastes were affected in red wines, and a general trend of decreasing fruit and floral intensities with increasing beetle rate was observed in both white and red wines. 15 ngIL Isopropylmethoxypyrazine was added to control wines and sensory profiles similar to high beetle treatments were obtained, supporting the hypothesis that methoxypyrazines from beetles are implicated in the taint. A trained panel evaluated the treated wines after 10 months of aging using the same sensory methods described above. Sensory profiles were very similar. Fennenting in the presence of Harmonia Axyridis (HA) had little influence on the chemical composition of the ftnished wine. The notable exception IS Isopropylmethoxypyrazine content, which was assessed usmg GC-MS analysis and showed increased concentration with increasing beetle nwnber for both white and red wmes. The influence of potential remedial treatments on the sensory properties of white and red wines tainted by Harmonia axyridis were also investigated. Bentonite, activated charcoal, oak chips, de-odorized oak chips, and UV or light irradiation were applied to tainted wine, and these wines evaluated chemically and sensorially. Both white and red wines treated with oak chips had strong oak characteristics, which masked the Harmonia axyridis-associated aroma and flavour attributes. In red wine, asparagus/bell pepper characteristics were decreased by bentonite and charcoal treatments. Only activated charcoal significantly decreased methoxypyrazine levels and only in white wine.

Assessing the influence of irrigation and fertigation on fruit composition, vine performance and wine quality in a cool, humid climate /

A study was devised to evaluate influences of irrigation and fertigation practices on Vitis vinifera and Vitis labruscana grapes in the Niagara Peninsula. A modified FAO Penman- Monteith evapotranspiration formula was used to calculate water budgets and schedule irrigations. Five deficit irrigation treatments (non-irrigated control; deficits imposed postbloom, lag phase, and veraison; fiiU season irrigation) were employed in a Chardonnay vineyard. Transpiration rate (4-7 /xg H20/cmVs) and soil moisture data demonstrated that the control and early deficit treatments were under water stress throughout the season. The fiiU season irrigation treatment showed an 18% (2001) and 19% (2002) increase in yield over control due to increased berry weight. Soluble solids and wine quality were not compromised, and the fiiU season treatment showed similar or higher °Brix than all other treatments. Berry titratable acidity andpH also fell within acceptable levels for all five treatments. Irrigation/fertigation timing trials were conducted on Concord and Niagara vines in 2001- 02. The six Concord treatments consisted of a non-irrigated control, irrigation fi^om Eichhom and Lorenz (EL) stage 12 to harvest, and four fertigation treatments which applied 70 kg/ha urea. The nine Niagara treatments included a non-irrigated control, two irrigated treatments (ceasing at veraison and harvest, respectively) and six fertigation treatments of various durations. Slight yield increases (ca. 10% in Concord; 29% in Niagara) were accompanied by small decreases in soluble solids (1.5°Brix), and methyl anthranilate concentrations. Transpiration rate and soil moisture (1 1.9-16.3%) data suggested that severe water stress was present in these Toledo clay based vineyards.

Effect of iron on reactivity of vanillin in wine models /

Phenolic compounds are important components of grapes and wines. They have been found to have important roles in grape and wine systems and properties that are beneficial for human health. Vanillin (3-methoxy-4-hydroxybenzaldehyde) is a phenolic compound coming from the oxidative degradation of lignin in oak-barrels during the aging of wine. Vanillin is an important flavour component of wine and its concentration in wine influences significantly the aroma and flavour of wine. The concentration of vanillin in wine is affected by various factors including the presence of metal ions. In this work, by using HPLC, HPLC-MS, and MS technologies, iron (III) cations were found to affect the oxidation of vanillin in a model system of wine, and the product of the oxidation was identified as divanillin. The mechanism of the redox reaction between vanillin and Fe^"^ is thought to follow that of other phenol oxidations. Increasing the concentration of Fe ^ in the model system accelerates divanillin production. The best pH condition for the divanillin production in the system is the range of 3.0 ~ 3.5. Increasing temperature from 20°C to 40°C accelerates the divanillin production. Divanillin was found to exist in three commercial red wines in this work. Keeping the storage temperature cool and decreasing the contact of grapes and wines with iron are two major measures suggested by this work in order to decrease the oxidation of vanillin during the making and aging of wine.

The effect of viticultural and oenological treatments on fruit and wine composition of Chardonnay musqué /

The effect of viticultural and oenological treatments on fruit and wine composition of Chardonnay musque Study I: Effect ofveraison leafremoval and cluster thinning A one-year study was performed analysing die effects of leaf removal, cluster thinning, yeast strain selection, and enzyme usage on the chemical composition and sensory properties of Chardonnay musque wine. A number of substantial differences were found between treatments in °Brix, TA, pH, and in free and potentially volatile terpene concentrations. Greatest variations in sensory attributes were created however through use of different viticultural practices.Study II: Effect ofcluster thinning timing A two year study was conducted investigating the effect of cluster thinning timing, yeast strain selection, and enzyme usage on the chemical composition and sensory attributes of Chardonnay musque wine. Time of thinning was found to impact °BrLx, titratable acidit}% pH, and free and potentially volatile terpene concentrations, as well as, a number of yield parameters.Yeast strain selection and enzyme usage also impacted wine composition, andwas found to exhibit a greater effect on sensory properties than application of cluster thinning.

Niagara Grape and Wine Festival Records 1955, 1964-1991, n.d.

Ontario Editorial Bureau (O.E.B.)

Psychographic characteristics of weekend wine tourists : a multiple case study of four wineries in the Niagara Region

The purpose of this study is to examine the psychographic (product attributes, motivation opinions, interest, lifestyle, values) characteristics of wine tourists along the Niagara wine r,~ute, located in Ontario, Canada, using a multiple case study method. Four wineries were selected, two wineries each on the East, and West sides of the wine route during the shoulder-season (January, February, 2004). Using a computer generated survey technique, tourists were approached to fill out a questionnaire on one of the available laptop computers, where a sample ofN=321 was obtained. The study findings revealed that there are three distinct wine tourist segments in the Niagara region. The segments were determined using an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and a K-means cluster analysis: Wine Lovers, Wine Interested, and Wine Curious wine tourists. These three segments displayed significant differences in their, motivation for visiting a winery, lifestyles, values, and wine purchasing behaviour. This study also examined differences between winery locations, on the East and West sides of the Niagara wine route, with respect to the aforementioned variables. The results indicated that there were significant differences between the regions with respect to these variables. The findings suggest that these differences present opportunities for more effective marketing strategies based on the uniqueness of each region. The results of this study provide insight for academia into a method of psychographic market segmentation of wine tourists and consumer behaviour. This study also contributes to the literature on wine tourism, and the identification of psychographic characteristics of wine tourists, an area where little research has taken place.

The impact of wine closure and packaging type, and light and temperature exposure on the concentration of 3-alkyl-2 -methoxypyrazines and other key constituents of wine

3-alkyl-2-methoxypyrazines (MPs) are grape- and insect-derived odor-active compounds responsible for vegetative percepts that are detrimental to wine quality when elevated. This study tested both the effect of closure/packaging types and light/temperature storage conditions on MPs (isopropyl-, secbutyl-, and isobutyl-MP) in wine. An MP-emiched wine rapidly (after 140 hours) and significantly decreased in MP concentration after natural and synthetic cork contact (immersion of closures in wine). This decrease was greatest with synthetic closures (70% - 89% reduction) and secbutyl-MP. Subsequently storage trials tested the effects of commercial closure/packaging options (natural cork, agglomerate cork, synthetic corks, screwcaps and TetraPak® cartons) on MPs in MP-emiched Riesling and Cabernet Franc over 18 months. Regardless of packaging, isobutyl-MP was the most altered from bottling. Notably, all MP levels tended to decrease to the greatest extent in TetraPak® cartons (~34% for all MPs) and there was evidence of contribution ofisoproyl- and secbutyl-MP from cork-based closures (i.e. ~30% increase in secbutyl-MP after 6 months) or from an unidentified wine constituent. To test the effects of various light/temperature conditions (light exposed at ambient temperature in three different bottle hues, light excluded at ambient temperature and light excluded at a "cellar" temperature (14°C)), MP-emiched Riesling and Cabernet Franc were also analyzed for MP concentrations over 12 months. MPs did not vary consistently with light or temperature. Other odorants and physico-chemical properties were tested in all wines during storage trials and closely agree with previous literature. These results provide novel insights into MPs during ageing, interactions with packaging and storage conditions, and assist in the selection of storage conditions/packaging for optimal wine quality.

Manufacturing 'authenticity' : a case study of the Niagara wine cluster

In this thesis, I use "Fabricating Authenticity," a model developed in the Production of Culture Perspective, to explore the evolving criteria for judging what constitute "real" and authentic Niagara wines, along with the naturalization of these criteria, as the Canadian Niagara wine cluster has come under increasing stress from globalization. Authenticity has been identified as a hallmark of contemporary marketing and important to cultural industries, which can use it for creating meaningful differentiation; making it a renewable resource for securing consumers, increasing market value; and for relationships with key brokers. This is important as free trade and international treaties are making traditional protective barriers, like trade tariffs and markups, obsolete and as governments increasingly allocate industry support via promotion and marketing policies that are directly linked to objectives of city and regional development, which in turn carry real implications for what gets to be judged authentic and inauthentic local culture. This research uses a mixed methods research strategy, drawing upon ethnographic observation, marketing materials, newspaper reports, and secondary data to provide insight into the processes and conflicts over efforts to fabricate authenticity, comparing the periods before and after the passage of NAFT A to the present period. The Niagara wine cluster is a good case in point because it has little natural advantage nor was there a tradition of quality table wine making to facilitate the naturalization of authenticity. Geographic industrial clusters have been found particularly competitive in the global economy and the exploratory case study contributes to our understanding of the dynamic of '1abricating authenticity," building on various theoretical propositions to attempt to derive explanations of how global processes affect strategies to create "authenticity," how these strategies affect cultural homogeneity and heterogeneity at the local level, and how the concept of "cluster" contributes to the process of managing authenticity.

A case study investigation of the learning needs of the Niagara grape and wine community

The Niagara Grape and Wine Community (NGWC) is an industry that has undergone rapid change and expansion as a result of changes in governmental regulations and consumer preferences. As a result of these changes, the demands of the wine industry workforce have changed to reflect the need to implement new strategies and practices to remain viable and competitive. The influx of people into the community with little or no prior practical experience in grape growing (viticulture) or winemaking (oenology) has created a need for additional training and learning opportunities to meet workforce needs. This case study investigated the learning needs of the members of this community and how these needs are currently being met. The barriers to, and the opportunities for, members acquiring new knowledge and developing skills were also explored. Participants were those involved in all levels of the industry and sectors (viticulture, processing, and retail), and their views on needs and suggestions for programs of study were collected. Through cross analyses of sectors, areas of common and unique interest were identified as well as formats for delivery. A common fundamental component was identified by all sectors - any program must have a significant applied component or demonstration of proficiency and should utilize members as peer instructors, mentors, and collaborators to generate a larger shared collective of knowledge. Through the review of learning organizations, learning communities, communities of practices, and learning networks, the principles for the development of a Grape and Wine Learning Network to meet the learning needs of the NGWC outside of formal institutional or academic programs were developed. The roles and actions of members to make such a network successful are suggested.

Impact of different irrigation strategies on grapes and wine quality of four grapevine cultivars (Vitis sp.) in cool climate conditions. An investigation into the relationships among ABA, water status, grape cultivar and wine quality

Niagara Peninsula of Ontario is the largest viticultural area in Canada. Although it is considered to be a cool and wet region, in the last decade many water stress events occurred during the growing seasons with negative effects on grape and wine quality. This study was initiated to understand and develop the best strategies for water management in vineyards and those that might contribute to grape maturity advancement. The irrigation trials investigated the impact of time of initiation (fruit set, lag phase and veraison), water replacement level based on theoretical loss through crop evapotranspiration (ETc; 100,50 and 25%) and different irrigation strategies [partial root zone drying (PRD) versus regulated deficit irrigation (RD!)] on grape composition and wine sensory profiles. The irrigation experiments were conducted in a commercial vineyard (Lambert Vineyards Inc.) located in Niagara-on-the-Lake, Ontario, from 2005 through 2009. The two experiments that tested the combination of different water regimes and irrigation time initiation were set up in a randomized block design as follows: Baco noir - three replicates x 10 treatments [(25%, 50% and 100% of ETc) x (initiation at fruit set, lag phase and veraison) + control]; Chardonnay - three replicates x seven treatments [(25%, 50% and 100% of ETc) x (initiation at fruit set and veraison) + control]. The experiments that tested different irrigation strategies were set up on two cultivars as follows: Sauvignon blanc - four replicates x four treatments [control, fully irrigated (100% ETc), PRD (100% ETc) and RDI (25% ETc)]; Cabemet Sauvignon - four replicates x five treatments [control, fully irrigated (100% ETc), PRD (100% ETc), RDI (50% ETc) and RDI (25% ETc)]. The controls in each experiment were nonirrigated. The irrigation treatments were compared for many variables related to soil water status, vine physiology, berry composition, wine sensory profile, and hormone composition [(abscisic acid (ABA) and its catabolites]. Soil moisture profile was mostly affected by irrigation treatments between 20 and 60 em depth depending on the grapevine cultivar and the regime of water applied. Overall soil moisture was consistently higher throughout the season in 100 and 50% ETc compare to the control. Transpiration rates and leaf temperature as well as shoot growth rate were the most sensitive variables to soil water status. Drip irrigation associated with RDI treatments (50% ETc and 25% ETc) had the most beneficial effects on vine physiology, fruit composition and wine varietal typicity, mainly by maintaining a balance between vegetative and reproductive parts of the vine. Neither the control nor the 100 ETc had overall a positive effect on grape composition and wine sensory typicity. The time of irrigation initiation affected the vine physiology and grape quality, the most positive effect was found in treatments initiated at lag phase and veraison. RDI treatments were overall more consistent in their positive effect on grape composition and wine varietal typicity comparing to PRD treatment. The greatest difference between non-irrigated and irrigated vines in most of the variables studied was found in 2007, the driest and hottest season of the experimental period. Soil water status had a greater and more consistent effect on red grapevine cultivars rather than on white winegrape cultivars. To understand the relationships among soil and plant water status, plant physiology and the hormonal profiles associated with it, abscisic acid (ABA) and its catabolites [phaseic acid (PA), dihydrophaseic acid (DPA), 7-hydroxy-ABA (TOH-ABA), 8' -hydroxy-ABA, neophaseic acid and abscisic acid glucose ester (ABA-GE)] were analyzed in leaves and berries from the Baco noir and Chardonnay irrigation trials over two growing seasons. ABA and some of its catabolites accurately described the water status in the vines. Endogenous ABA and some of its catabolites were strongly affected in Baco noir and Chardonnay by both the water regime (i.e. ET level) and timing of irrigation initiation. Chardonnay grapevines produced less ABA in both leaves and berries compared to Baco noir, which indicated that ABA synthesis is also cultivar dependant. ABA-GE was the main catabolite in treatments with high water deficits, while PA and DPA were higher in treatments with high water status, suggesting that the vine produced more ABA-GE under water deficits to maintain rapid control of the stomata. These differences between irrigation treatments with respect to ABA and catabolites were particularly noticeable in the dry 2007 season. Two trials using exogenous ABA investigated the effect of different concentrations of ABA and organs targeted for spraying, on grape maturation and berry composition of Cabemet Sauvignon grapevines, in two cool and wet seasons (2008-2009). The fIrst experiment consisted of three replicates x three treatments [(150 and 300 mg/L, both applications only on clusters) + untreated control] while the second experiment consisted in three replicates x four treatments [(full canopy, only clusters, and only leaves sprayed with 300 ppm ABA) + untreated control]. Exogenous ABA was effective in hastening veraison, and improving the composition of Cabemet Sauvignon. Ability of ABA to control the timing of grape berry maturation was dependant on both solution concentration and the target organ. ABA affected not only fruit composition but also yield components. Berries treated with ABA had lower weight and higher skin dry mass, which constitutes qualitative aspects desired in the wine grapes. Temporal advancement of ripening through hormonal control can lead to earlier fruit maturation, which is a distinct advantage in cooler areas or areas with a high risk of early frost occurrence. Exogenous ABA could provide considerable benefits to wine industry in terms of grape composition, wine style and schedule activities in the winery, particularly in wet and cool years. These trials provide the ftrst comprehensive data in eastern North America on the response of important hybrid and Vitis vinifera winegrape cultivars to irrigation management. Results from this study additionally might be a forward step in understanding the ABA metabolism, and its relationship with water status. Future research should be focused on ftnding the ABA threshold required to trigger the ripening process, and how this process could be controlled in cool climates.

Unveiling the Influence of Consumer Wine Appreciation Dimension on Purchasing Behavior

Consumption values and different usage situations have received extensive interest from scholars; however, there is a lack of understanding regarding how these two constructs interact when it comes to the purchase decisions of consumers. This study examines the relationship between consumption values, consumption situations, and consumers’ purchasing decisions in terms of their willingness to pay and the purchase quantity. First of all, my model proposes that all four consumption values and different situations have a positive effect on consumers’ willingness to pay as well as the quantity they purchase. It also proposes that varying usage situations moderate the effect of consumption values on consumers’ purchasing decisions. In my conceptual model, I have also integrated the epistemic and conditional values where there is a gap in the existing literature. Prior literature has isolated the consumption values when studying how they affect consumer behavior and has not examined how consumption situations moderate the relationship between consumption values and purchasing decisions. Also, the existing literature has mostly focused on how consumption values affect purchase intentions, brand loyalty, or satisfaction, whereas my study focuses on purchasing decisions. For my study, the participants were randomly chosen from the general wine consumer population and the age range was between 20 and 75, which included 83 male respondents and 119 female respondents. The data received from my respondents support my hypotheses for the model. In my final chapter, I discuss the theoretical and managerial implications as well as suggestions for future research.

History and Theorizing: The Case of Winemaking in the Ontario Wine Industry

Despite the fact that theorization has been established as an important social mechanism in a variety of contexts, little research has explicated how this process works. I argue that theorization entails strategic constructions of history, or rhetorical history, in order to persuade audiences of legitimacy. I examine the role that history plays in actors’ theorizations of the Ontario wine industry as world class. By conducting a rhetorical analysis of the newsletters and websites of Ontario wineries, I find that various themes of history are routinely employed to re-theorize the industry as one that produces world class wines. In general, the findings suggest that the narratives of Ontario wineries tap into global repertoires of fine wine to portray the continuity of current practices with those of Old World winemaking. In addition, wineries sometimes tap into local histories to convey a sense of uniqueness, but they also obscure the history of poor winemaking in the region.

Innovation and adaptation in the Ontario grape and wine industry: An integrated, transdisciplinary response to climate change

With scientific consensus supporting a 4oC increase in global mean temperature over the next century and increased frequency of severe weather events, adaptation to climate change is critical. Given the dynamic and complex nature of climate change, a transdisciplinary approach toward adaptation can create an environment that supports knowledge sharing and innovation, improving existing strategies and creating new ones. The Ontario wine industry provides a case study to illustrate the benefits of this approach. We describe the formation and work of the Ontario Grape and Wine Research Network within this context, and present some preliminary results to highlight the opportunities for innovation that will drive the successful adaption of the Ontario grape and wine industry.

Functional genomics of BAHD acyltransferases in different varieties of the wine grape, Vilis vinifera

The characteristic "foxy" aroma of Vilis labrusca Concord grapes is due in large part to methyl anthranilate, a volatile ester formed by the enzyme anthraniloyl- CoA:methanol anthraniloyltransferase (VIAMAT) of the superfamily of BARD acyltransferases. The publication of the genome ofthe closely related wine grape Vilis vinifera, which does not accumulate methyl anthranilate, permitted the searching for any putative VlAU4T-like genes, with the result of 5 highly homologous candidates being found, with one candidate sharing 95% identity to VlAU4T. Probing the gene expression of 18 different cultivars of V. vinifora ripe berries by RT -PCR showed that many varieties do indeed express VlAU4T-like genes. Subsequent cloning of the full-length open reading frame of one of these genes from eDNA prepared from the cultivar Sauvignon Blanc permitted preliminary biochemical characterization of the enzyme after heterologous expression in E. coli. It was determined that this alcohol acyltransferase (named VvsbAATl) catalyzes the formation of cis-3-hexenyl acetate, a "green-leaf' volatile. Although the cloned gene from Sauvignon Blanc had 95% identity at the amino acid level to VIAMAT, it displayed an altered substrate specificity and expression pattern. These results highlight the difficulty in predicting substrate specificity and function of enzymes through the basis of sequence homology, which is a common finding in the study of BARD acyltransferases. Also, the determination of function of VvsbAATl and other BARD acyltransferases in V. vinifera could be used as a genetic marker for certain aroma characteristics in grape breeding programs.