Dialysis water treated by reverse osmosis decreases the levels of C-reactive protein in uremic patients

Atherosclerosis is a major complication of chronic renal failure. Microinflammation is involved in atherogenesis and is associated with uremia and dialysis. The role of dialysate water contamination in inducing inflammation has been debated. Our aim was to study inflammatory markers in patients on chronic dialysis, before and 3 to 6 months after switching the water purification system from deionization to reverse osmosis. Patients had demographic, clinical and nutritional information collected and blood drawn for determination of albumin, ferritin, C-reactive protein (CRP), interleukin-6, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha in both situations. Acceptable levels of water purity were less than 200 colony-forming units of bacteria and less than 1 ng/ml of endotoxin. Sixteen patients died. They had higher median CRP (26.6 vs 11.2 mg/dl, P = 0.007) and lower median albumin levels (3.1 vs 3.9 g/l, P < 0.05) compared to the 31 survivors. Eight patients were excluded because of obvious inflammatory conditions. From the 23 remaining patients (mean age ± SD: 51.3 ± 13.9 years), 18 had a decrease in CRP after the water treatment system was changed. Overall, median CRP was lower with reverse osmosis than with deionization (13.2 vs 4.5 mg/l, P = 0.022, N = 23). There was no difference in albumin, cytokines, subjective global evaluation, or clinical and biochemical parameters. In conclusion, uremic patients presented a clinically significant reduction in CRP levels when dialysate water purification system switched from deionization to reverse osmosis. It is possible that better water treatments induce less inflammation and eventually less atherosclerosis in hemodialysis patients.

Polishing of water treated by a biological process with heterogeneous photocatalysis

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

The treatment of sulfate-rich wastewater using an anaerobic sequencing batch biofilm pilot-scale reactor

This paper presents the results from 92 cycles of an anaerobic sequencing batch biofilm reactor containing biomass immobilized on inert support (mineral coal) applied for the treatment of an industrial wastewater containing high sulfate concentration. The pilot-scale reactor, with a total volume of 1.2 m(3), was operated at sulfate loading rates ranging from 0.15 to 1.90 kgSO(4)(2-)/cycle (48 It - cycle) corresponding to sulfate concentrations of 0.25 to 3.0 gSO(4)(2-) l(-1). Domestic sewage and ethanol were utilized as electron donors for sulfate reduction. Influent sulfate concentrations were increased in order to evaluate the minimum COD/sulfate ratio at which high reactor performance could be maintained. The mean sulfate removal efficiency remained between the range of 88 to 92% at several sulfate concentrations. Temporal profiles along the 48 h cycles were carried out under stable operation at sulfate concentrations of 1.0, 2.0 and 3.0 gSO(4)(2-) l(-1). Sulfate removal reached 99% for cycle times of 15, 25, and 30 h, and the effluents sulfate concentrations were lower than 8 mgSO(4)(2-) l(-1). The results demonstrate the potential applicability of the anaerobic configuration for the biological treatment of sulfate-rich wastewaters. (C) 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Post-treatment of effluents from the sulfate reduction process by anaerobic sequencing batch biofilm reactors

The main objective of this research was to evaluate the potential use of a bench-scale anaerobic sequencing batch biofilm reactor (ASBBR) containing mineral coal as inert support for removal Of Sulfide and organic matter effluents from an ASBBR (1.2 m(3)) utilized for treatment of sulfate-rich wastewater. The cycle time was 48 h, including the steps of feeding (2 h), reaction with continuous liquid recirculation (44 h) and discharge (2 h). COD removal efficiency was up to 90% and the effluents total sulfide concentrations (H(2)S, HS(-), S(2-)) remained in the range of 1.5 to 7.5 mg.l(-1) during the 50 days of operation (25 cycles). The un-ionized Sulfide and ionized sulfides were converted by biological process to elemental sulfur (S(0)) under oxygen limited conditions. The results obtained in the bench-scale reactor were used to design an ASBBR in pilot scale for use in post-treatment to achieve the emission standards (sulfide and COD) for sulfate reduction. The pilot-scale reactor, with a total volume of 0.43 m(3), the COD and total sulfide removal achieved 88% and 57%, respectively, for a cycle time of 48 h (70 days of operation or 35 cycles).

Combination of an anaerobic process with O(3), UV and O(3)/UV for cellulose pulp bleaching effluent treatment

Recent studies have shown that partial oxidation by advanced oxidation processes (AOP) is able to transform hard-to-degrade compounds and increase their biodegradability. In this work, anaerobic treatment was followed by ozonation, UV radiation and ozonation in the presence of UV radiation, to treat bleaching effluents from a cellulose kraft Pulp plant. The anaerobic reactor (horizontal anaerobic immobilized Sludge bed, HAISB) was Used as a pretreatment to reduce the efficient organic load before applying ACIP. The ozone treatments were applied in three different pH environments (3, 8 and 10) with retention times of 10, 30, 45 and 60 min. COD and adsorbable organic halogens (AOX) removal efficiencies at the HAISB were approximately 50%, while the BOD removal efficiency reached 80%. Ozonation promoted further removal of AOX and COD so that the combined efficiency reached 96% for AOX and 70% for COD. In the oxidation process, BOD was either removed in small quantities or actually increased, as intended, so that a second biological treatment would be able to complete the treatment. The maximum increase in the BOD(5)/COD ratio (biodegradability indicator) Occurred at pH 8, reaching 104% for ozonation at a dosage of 1540 mg(O3).L(-1). Applying UV radiation alone resulted in lower values: a 34% increase ill the BOD(5)/COD ratio and a 76% AOX removal efficiency. These results indicate that the combination of anaerobic treatment with ozonation or ozonation/UV radiation improves the treatability of cellulose pulp bleaching efficients and that the resulting wastewater is suitable for further biological treatment under aerobic conditions with a low level of toxic compounds from the halogenated family.

Integrated treatment of shrimp effluent by sedimentation, oyster filtration and macroalgal absorption: a laboratory scale study

Effluent water from shrimp ponds typically contains elevated concentrations of dissolved nutrients and suspended particulates compared to influent water. Attempts to improve effluent water quality using filter feeding bivalves and macroalgae to reduce nutrients have previously been hampered by the high concentration of clay particles typically found in untreated pond effluent. These particles inhibit feeding in bivalves and reduce photosynthesis in macroalgae by increasing effluent turbidity. In a small-scale laboratory study, the effectiveness of a three-stage effluent treatment system was investigated. In the first stage, reduction in particle concentration occurred through natural sedimentation. In the second stage, filtration by the Sydney rock oyster, Saccostrea commercialis (Iredale and Roughley), further reduced the concentration of suspended particulates, including inorganic particles, phytoplankton, bacteria, and their associated nutrients. In the final stage, the macroalga, Gracilaria edulis (Gmelin) Silva, absorbed dissolved nutrients. Pond effluent was collected from a commercial shrimp farm, taken to an indoor culture facility and was left to settle for 24 h. Subsamples of water were then transferred into laboratory tanks stocked with oysters and maintained for 24 h, and then transferred to tanks containing macroalgae for another 24 h. Total suspended solid (TSS), chlorophyll a, total nitrogen (N), total phosphorus (P), NH4+, NO3-, and PO43-, and bacterial numbers were compared before and after each treatment at: 0 h (initial); 24 h (after sedimentation); 48 h (after oyster filtration); 72 h (after macroalgal absorption). The combined effect of the sequential treatments resulted in significant reductions in the concentrations of all parameters measured. High rates of nutrient regeneration were observed in the control tanks, which did not contain oysters or macroalgae. Conversely, significant reductions in nutrients and suspended particulates after sedimentation and biological treatment were observed. Overall, improvements in water quality (final percentage of the initial concentration) were as follows: TSS (12%); total N (28%); total P (14%); NH4+ (76%); NO3- (30%); PO43-(35%); bacteria (30%); and chlorophyll a (0.7%). Despite the probability of considerable differences in sedimentation, filtration and nutrient uptake rates when scaled to farm size, these results demonstrate that integrated treatment has the potential to significantly improve water quality of shrimp farm effluent. (C) 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Microbiology of membrane bioreactors for wastewater treatment: a molecular approach

Dissertation presented to obtain the Ph.D degree in Engineering and Technology Sciences, Biotechnology.

Expression of a plant-derived peptide harboring water-cleaning and antimicrobial activities.

Drinking water is currently a scarce world resource, the preparation of which requires complex treatments that include clarification of suspended particles and disinfection. Seed extracts of Moringa oleifera Lam., a tropical tree, have been proposed as an environment-friendly alternative, due to their traditional use for the clarification of drinking water. However, the precise nature of the active components of the extract and whether they may be produced in recombinant form are unknown. Here we show that recombinant or synthetic forms of a cationic seed polypeptide mediate efficient sedimentation of suspended mineral particles and bacteria. Unexpectedly, the polypeptide was also found to possesses a bactericidal activity capable of disinfecting heavily contaminated water. Furthermore, the polypeptide has been shown to efficiently kill several pathogenic bacteria, including antibiotic-resistant isolates of Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, and Legionella species. Thus, this polypeptide displays the unprecedented feature of combining water purification and disinfectant properties. Identification of an active principle derived from the seed extracts points to a range of potential for drinking water treatment or skin and mucosal disinfection in clinical settings.

Rasvaisten ja öljyisten jätevesien biologisen puhdistuksen mallinnus

Työn kirjallisuusosassa on tarkasteltu rasvaistenjätevesien puhdistuksessa käytettyjä perinteisiä käsittelymenetelmiä ja ultrasuodatusta. Perinteisiä rasvaisten jätevesien käsittelymenetelmiä ovat muun muassalaskeutus, flotaatio, hydrosykloni, pisarakoon kasvattaminen suodatus sekä biologinen käsittely. Lisäksi happohydrolyysia voidaan soveltaa edellä mainittujen menetelmien esikäsittelynä. Perinteisten puhdistusmenetelmien käyttöä rajoittavatniiden tehottomuus emulgoituneen ja liukoisen öljyn poistossa. Tämä sekä kiristyneet päästövaatimukset ja kalvotekniikan nopea kehittyminen ovat lisänneet kiinnostusta kalvotekniikkaan. Työn soveltavassa osassa on tarkasteltu rasvojen mahdollisesti aiheuttamia ongelmia Porvoon jalostamon kemiallisessa ja biologisessa puhdistuksessa. Rasvaisia jätevesiä muodostuu biodieselin valmistuksessa, jossa rasvoja käytetään syöttöaineena. Vertailtaessa jalostamon vesilaitoksen nykyisiä olosuhteita ja rasvojen käsittelyn vaatimia olosuhteita havaitaan, että optimiolosuhteet ovat melko lähellä toisiaan ja rasvaisten jätevesien mukana tulevat fosfori-, typpi- ja COD-kuormat melko pieniä. Suurimmat mahdolliset rasvojen aiheuttamat ongelmat syntyvät aktiivilietelaitoksella, jossa kevyt pinnalle nouseva rasva nostaa mukanaan lietettä. Rasvat ja rasvahapot myös lisäävät rihmamaisten bakteerien kasvua, joiden runsas esiintyminen aiheuttaa huonosti laskeutuvaa lietettä, eli paisuntalietettä. Rasvaisten vesien aiheuttamaa kuormitusta aktiivilieteprosessiin on tarkasteltu Activated sludge Model No. 3:n ja bio-P fosforin poisto moduuliin pohjautuvan Excel-taulukkolaskentamallin avulla. Pohjana työssä on käytetty Tuomo Hillin vuonna 2002 diplomityönä tekemää taulukkolaskentamallia. Työssä on esitelty kaikki mallin kannalta oleelliset yhtälöt ja parametrit. Tämän tutkimuksen perusteella mallin käytettävyyttä rajoittaa se, että sitä ei ole kalibroitu Porvoon jalostamolle. Kalibroimattomalla mallilla voidaan saada vain suuntaa antavia tuloksia.

Rasvaisten jätevesien puhdistus

Rasvaisten jätevesien puhdistus on sitä tuottaville yrityksille kallista ja hankalaa. Nykyisten päästövaatimusten saavuttaminen on perinteisillä jätevedenkäsittelymenetelmillä vaikeaa tai lähes mahdotonta, riippuen käsiteltävän jäteveden ominaisuuksista. Rasvaisen jäteveden käsittelyssä on käytetty mm. laskeutusta, flotaatiota, hydrosykloneja, pisaroitusta, suodatusta sekä biologista käsittelyä. Lisäksi happohydrolyysiä voidaan soveltaa edellä mainittujen menetelmien esikäsittelynä. Useita näitä erotusmenetelmiä voidaan myös tehostaa kemikaalien lisäyksellä. Työn kirjallisuusosassa on käsitelty rasvaisten jätevesien ja emulsioiden kalvosuodatusta ja kalvojen käyttöä pisaroituselementtinä. Tavanomaisessa kalvosuodatuksessa tarkoituksena on erottaa kalvoa läpäisemätön rasvajae ja permeoituva vesijae toisistaan, kun taas pisaroittamisen tarkoituksena on saada dispergoituneen faasin pisarakoko kasvamaan joko kalvon pinnalla tai sen huokosissa. Pisarakoon kasvaessa emulsion stabiilisuus heikkenee ja faasit voidaan helpommin erottaa toisistaan. Työn kokeellisessa osassa tavoitteena oli tutkia kalvosuodatuksen ja erilaisten kalvojen toimivuutta esteröintilaitoksen rasvaisten jätevesien käsittelyssä. Tutkimuksessa käytettiin MW- (GE Osmonics), C30F- (Nadir Filtration), Teflon Typar- (Tetratex) sekä JX-kalvoa (Osmonics Desal). Haastetta työhön syntyi tutkittujen jätevesien ominaisuuksien suuresta vaihtelusta sitä tuottavan laitoksen panostyylisestä toiminnasta johtuen. Lisäksi tutkittiin, onko syöttöliuoksen pH-säädöllä ja laskeutuksella ennen suodatusta merkittävää etua itse kalvosuodatusprosessiin. Kalvotekniikkaa voidaan tämän tutkimuksen perusteella soveltaa myös esteröintilaitoksen rasvaisten jätevesien suodatukseen, ja erityistä etua saadaan jäteveden pH-säädöllä (pH 3) ja laskeutuksella ennen varsinaista suodatusta. Tällaiseen käsittelyyn soveltuu tutkituista kalvoista parhaiten hydrofiilinen regeneroidusta selluloosasta valmistettu C30F-kalvo, jonka etuna on vähäinen foulaantuminen muihin tutkittuihin kalvoihin verrattuna.

Characterization and Control Strategies of an Integrated Chemical-Biological System for the Remediation of Toxic Pollutants in Wastewater: A case of study

In a previous work, a hybrid system consisting of an advanced oxidation process (AOP) named Photo-Fenton (Ph-F) and a fixed bed biological treatment operating as a sequencing batch biofilm reactor (SBBR) was started-up and optimized to treat 200 mg·L-1 of 4-chlorophenol (4-CP) as a model compound. In this work, studies of reactor stability and control as well as microbial population determination by molecular biology techniques were carried out to further characterize and control the biological reactor. Results revealed that the integrated system was flexible and even able to overcome toxic shock loads. Oxygen uptake rate (OUR) in situ was shown to be a valid tool to control the SBBR operation, to detect toxic conditions to the biomass, and to assess the recovery of performance. A microbial characterization by 16S rDNA sequence analysis reveals that the biological population was varied, although about 30% of the bacteria belonged to the Wautersia genus.

Wet oxidation of recalcitrant lignin waters: Experimental and kinetic studies

The dissertation is based on four articles dealing with recalcitrant lignin water purification. Lignin, a complicated substance and recalcitrant to most treatment technologies, inhibits seriously pulp and paper industry waste management. Therefore, lignin is studied, using WO as a process method for its degradation. A special attention is paid to the improvement in biodegradability and the reduction of lignin content, since they have special importance for any following biological treatment. In most cases wet oxidation is not used as a complete ' mineralization method but as a pre treatment in order to eliminate toxic components and to reduce the high level of organics produced. The combination of wet oxidation with a biological treatment can be a good option due to its effectiveness and its relatively low technology cost. The literature part gives an overview of Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOPs). A hot oxidation process, wet oxidation (WO), is investigated in detail and is the AOP process used in the research. The background and main principles of wet oxidation, its industrial applications, the combination of wet oxidation with other water treatment technologies, principal reactions in WO, and key aspects of modelling and reaction kinetics are presented. There is also given a wood composition and lignin characterization (chemical composition, structure and origin), lignin containing waters, lignin degradation and reuse possibilities, and purification practices for lignin containing waters. The aim of the research was to investigate the effect of the operating conditions of WO, such as temperature, partial pressure of oxygen, pH and initial concentration of wastewater, on the efficiency, and to enhance the process and estimate optimal conditions for WO of recalcitrant lignin waters. Two different waters are studied (a lignin water model solution and debarking water from paper industry) to give as appropriate conditions as possible. Due to the great importance of re using and minimizing the residues of industries, further research is carried out using residual ash of an Estonian power plant as a catalyst in wet oxidation of lignin-containing water. Developing a kinetic model that includes in the prediction such parameters as TOC gives the opportunity to estimate the amount of emerging inorganic substances (degradation rate of waste) and not only the decrease of COD and BOD. The degradation target compound, lignin is included into the model through its COD value (CODligning). Such a kinetic model can be valuable in developing WO treatment processes for lignin containing waters, or other wastewaters containing one or more target compounds. In the first article, wet oxidation of "pure" lignin water was investigated as a model case with the aim of degrading lignin and enhancing water biodegradability. The experiments were performed at various temperatures (110 -190°C), partial oxygen pressures (0.5 -1.5 MPa) and pH (5, 9 and 12). The experiments showed that increasing the temperature notably improved the processes efficiency. 75% lignin reduction was detected at the lowest temperature tested and lignin removal improved to 100% at 190°C. The effect of temperature on the COD removal rate was lower, but clearly detectable. 53% of organics were oxidized at 190°C. The effect of pH occurred mostly on lignin removal. Increasing the pH enhanced the lignin removal efficiency from 60% to nearly 100%. A good biodegradability ratio (over 0.5) was generally achieved. The aim of the second article was to develop a mathematical model for "pure" lignin wet oxidation using lumped characteristics of water (COD, BOD, TOC) and lignin concentration. The model agreed well with the experimental data (R2 = 0.93 at pH 5 and 12) and concentration changes during wet oxidation followed adequately the experimental results. The model also showed correctly the trend of biodegradability (BOD/COD) changes. In the third article, the purpose of the research was to estimate optimal conditions for wet oxidation (WO) of debarking water from the paper industry. The WO experiments were' performed at various temperatures, partial oxygen pressures and pH. The experiments showed that lignin degradation and organics removal are affected remarkably by temperature and pH. 78-97% lignin reduction was detected at different WO conditions. Initial pH 12 caused faster removal of tannins/lignin content; but initial pH 5 was more effective for removal of total organics, represented by COD and TOC. Most of the decrease in organic substances concentrations occurred in the first 60 minutes. The aim of the fourth article was to compare the behaviour of two reaction kinetic models, based on experiments of wet oxidation of industrial debarking water under different conditions. The simpler model took into account only the changes in COD, BOD and TOC; the advanced model was similar to the model used in the second article. Comparing the results of the models, the second model was found to be more suitable for describing the kinetics of wet oxidation of debarking water. The significance of the reactions involved was compared on the basis of the model: for instance, lignin degraded first to other chemically oxidizable compounds rather than directly to biodegradable products. Catalytic wet oxidation of lignin containing waters is briefly presented at the end of the dissertation. Two completely different catalysts were used: a commercial Pt catalyst and waste power plant ash. CWO showed good performance using 1 g/L of residual ash gave lignin removal of 86% and COD removal of 39% at 150°C (a lower temperature and pressure than with WO). It was noted that the ash catalyst caused a remarkable removal rate for lignin degradation already during the pre heating for `zero' time, 58% of lignin was degraded. In general, wet oxidation is not recommended for use as a complete mineralization method, but as a pre treatment phase to eliminate toxic or difficultly biodegradable components and to reduce the high level of organics. Biological treatment is an appropriate post treatment method since easily biodegradable organic matter remains after the WO process. The combination of wet oxidation with subsequent biological treatment can be an effective option for the treatment of lignin containing waters.

Swine manure post-treatment technologies for pathogenic organism inactivation

Swine manure agricultural use is a common practice in Brazil. Their physic-chemical characteristics favor its use as biofertilizer, but the presence of pathogens may become a risk to human health. This research presents a qualitative study of the main alternatives of pig manure disinfection, analyzing efficiency, advantages and limitations of each procedure. The disinfection studies reported in literature are based on the following treatments: alkaline, thermal, biological, chemical, and physical. The greater efficiencies are in thermal treatment (> 4 log: 60 °C), chemical treatment (3 to 4 log: 30mg Cl- L-1; 3 to 4 log: 40 mg O3 L-1) and physical treatment (3 a 4 log: 220 mJ UV radiation cm-2). The biological treatment (anaerobiosis) also promotes the pathogen reduction of swine manure, however with lower efficiency (1 to 2 log). The selection of the treatment should consider: implementation and operation cost, necessity of preliminary treatment, efficiency obtained and destination of the treated manure (agricultural use, water reuse). Brazilian regulation does not have specific guidelines for the microbiological quality of animal production effluents that is very important to be considered due to confined animal feeding operation transformation in the last years in the country.

Electrocoagulation in the treatment of industrial waters and wastewaters

Chemical coagulation is commonly used in raw water and wastewater treatment plants for the destabilisation of pollutants so that they can be removed in the subsequent separation processes. The most commonly used coagulation chemicals are aluminium and iron metal salts. Electrocoagulation technology has also been proposed for the treatment of raw waters and wastewaters. With this technology, metal cations are produced on the electrodes via electrolysis and these cations form various hydroxides in the water depending on the water pH. In addition to this main reaction, several side reactions, such as hydrogen bubble formation and the reduction of metals on cathodes, also take place in the cell. In this research, the applications of electrocoagulation were investigated in raw water treatment and wastewater applications. The surface water used in this research contained high concentrations of natural organic matter (NOM). The effect of the main parameters – current density, initial pH, electric charge per volume, temperature and electrolysis cell construction – on NOM removal were investigated. In the wastewater treatment studies, the removal of malodorous sulphides and toxic compounds from the wastewaters and debarking effluents were studied. Also, the main parameters of the treatment, such as initial pH and current density, were investigated. Aluminium electrodes were selected for the raw water treatment, whereas wastewaters and debarking effluent were treated with iron electrodes. According to results of this study, aluminium is more suitable electrode material for electrocoagulation applications because it produces Al(III) species. Metal ions and hydroxides produced by iron electrodes are less effective in the destabilisation of pollutants because iron electrodes produce more soluble and less charged Fe(II) species. However, Fe(II) can be effective in some special applications, such as sulphide removal. The resulting metal concentration is the main parameter affecting destabilisation of pollutants. Current density, treatment time, temperature and electrolysis cell construction affect the dissolution of electrodes and hence also the removal of pollutants. However, it seems that these parameters have minimal significance in the destabilization of the pollutants besides this effect (in the studied range of parameters). Initial pH and final pH have an effect on the dissolution of electrodes, but they also define what aluminium or iron species are formed in the solution and have an effect on the ζ-potential of all charged species in the solution. According to the results of this study, destabilisation mechanisms of pollutants by electrocoagulation and chemical coagulation are similar. Optimum DOC removal and low residual aluminium can be obtained simultaneously with electrocoagulation, which may be a significant benefit of electrocoagulation in surface water treatment compared to chemical coagulation. Surface water treatment with electrocoagulation can produce high quality water, which could be used as potable water or fresh water for industrial applications. In wastewater treatment applications, electrocoagulation can be used to precipitate malodorous sulphides to prevent their release into air. Technology seems to be able to remove some toxic pollutants from wastewater and could be used as pretreatment prior to treatment at a biological wastewater treatment plant. However, a thorough economic and ecological comparison of chemical coagulation and electrocoagulation is recommended, because these methods seem to be similar in pollutant destabilisation mechanisms, metal consumption and removal efficiency in most applications.

Water chemistry management for future large experimental facilities

The thesis focuses on the water chemistry of the experimental test facilities and their reference VVER reactors. The main objective of the thesis is to provide recommendations for water chemistry management for laboratory facilities (VEERA, PACTEL) simulating the VVERs and for the large future facilities of the Lappeenranta University of Technology. In the beginning, the concept of nuclear power generation and the applicability of the nuclear power usage is discussed. Next, different water chemistry and water purification systems in primary and secondary circuits currently used at the power plant have been outlined. Also the construction geometry and design of test facilities PACTEL and VEERA, as well as the operation principles of their main equipment has been described. Finally, the appropriate water chemistry and water treatment system have been proposed for the existing and future experimental facilities of LUT.