Circumpolar dataset of Soil Organic Carbon north of treeline derived from ENVISAT ASAR GM, link to GeoTIFF

A new approach for the estimation of soil organic carbon (SOC) pools north of the tree line has been developed based on synthetic aperture radar (SAR; ENVISAT Advanced SAR Global Monitoring mode) data. SOC values are directly determined from backscatter values instead of upscaling using land cover or soil classes. The multi-mode capability of SAR allows application across scales. It can be shown that measurements in C band under frozen conditions represent vegetation and surface structure properties which relate to soil properties, specifically SOC. It is estimated that at least 29 Pg C is stored in the upper 30 cm of soils north of the tree line. This is approximately 25 % less than stocks derived from the soil-map-based Northern Circumpolar Soil Carbon Database (NCSCD). The total stored carbon is underestimated since the established empirical relationship is not valid for peatlands or strongly cryoturbated soils. The approach does, however, provide the first spatially consistent account of soil organic carbon across the Arctic. Furthermore, it could be shown that values obtained from 1 km resolution SAR correspond to accounts based on a high spatial resolution (2 m) land cover map over a study area of about 7 × 7 km in NE Siberia. The approach can be also potentially transferred to medium-resolution C-band SAR data such as ENVISAT ASAR Wide Swath with ~120 m resolution but it is in general limited to regions without woody vegetation. Global Monitoring-mode-derived SOC increases with unfrozen period length. This indicates the importance of this parameter for modelling of the spatial distribution of soil organic carbon storage.

Analyse des signaux radars polarimétriques en bandes C et L pour le suivi de l'humidité du sol de sites forestiers

Résumé : Dans les couverts forestiers, le suivi de l’humidité du sol permet de prévenir plusieurs désastres tels que la paludification, les incendies et les inondations. Comme ce paramètre est très dynamique dans l’espace et dans le temps, son estimation à grande échelle présente un grand défi, d’où le recours à la télédétection radar. Le capteur radar à synthèse d’ouverture (RSO) est couramment utilisé grâce à sa vaste couverture et sa résolution spatiale élevée. Contrairement aux sols nus et aux zones agricoles, le suivi de l’humidité du sol en zone forestière est très peu étudié à cause de la complexité des processus de diffusion dans ce type de milieu. En effet, la forte atténuation de la contribution du sol par la végétation et la forte contribution de volume issue de la végétation réduisent énormément la sensibilité du signal radar à l’humidité du sol. Des études portées sur des couverts forestiers ont montré que le signal radar en bande C provient principalement de la couche supérieure et sature vite avec la densité de la végétation. Cependant, très peu d’études ont exploré le potentiel des paramètres polarimétriques, dérivés d’un capteur polarimétrique comme RADARSAT-2, pour suivre l’humidité du sol sur les couverts forestiers. L’effet du couvert végétal est moins important avec la bande L en raison de son importante profondeur de pénétration qui permet de mieux informer sur l’humidité du sol. L’objectif principal de ce projet est de suivre l’humidité du sol à partir de données radar entièrement polarimétriques en bandes C et L sur des sites forestiers. Les données utilisées sont celles de la campagne terrain Soil Moisture Active Passive Validation EXperiment 2012 (SMAPVEX12) tenue du 6 juin au 17 juillet 2012 au Manitoba (Canada). Quatre sites forestiers de feuillus ont été échantillonnés. L’espèce majoritaire présente est le peuplier faux-tremble. Les données utilisées incluent des mesures de l’humidité du sol, de la rugosité de surface du sol, des caractéristiques des sites forestiers (arbres, sous-bois, litières…) et des données radar entièrement polarimétriques aéroportées et satellitaires acquises respectivement, en bande L (UAVSAR) à 30˚ et 40˚ et en bande C (RADARSAT-2) entre 20˚ et 30˚. Plusieurs paramètres polarimétriques ont été dérivés des données UAVSAR et RADARSAT-2 : les coefficients de corrélation (ρHHVV, φHHVV, etc); la hauteur du socle; l’entropie (H), l’anisotropie (A) et l’angle alpha extraits de la décomposition de Cloude-Pottier; les puissances de diffusion de surface (Ps), de double bond (Pd) extraites de la décomposition de Freeman-Durden, etc. Des relations entre les données radar (coefficients de rétrodiffusion multifréquences et multipolarisations (linéaires et circulaires) et les paramètres polarimétriques) et l’humidité du sol ont été développées et analysées. Les résultats ont montré que 1) En bande L, plusieurs paramètres optimaux permettent le suivi de l’humidité du sol en zone forestière avec un coefficient de corrélation significatif (p-value < 0,05): σ[indice supérieur 0] linéaire et σ[indice supérieur 0] circulaire (le coefficient de corrélation, r, varie entre 0,60 et 0,96), Ps (r entre 0,59 et 0,84), Pd (r entre 0,6 et 0,82), ρHHHV_30˚, ρVVHV_30˚, φHHHV_30˚ and φHHVV_30˚ (r entre 0,56 et 0,81) alors qu’en bande C, ils sont réduits à φHHHV, φVVHV et φHHVV (r est autour de 0,90). 2) En bande L, les paramètres polarimétriques n’ont pas montré de valeur ajoutée par rapport aux signaux conventionnels multipolarisés d’amplitude, pour le suivi de l’humidité du sol sur les sites forestiers. En revanche, en bande C, certains paramètres polarimétriques ont montré de meilleures relations significatives avec l’humidité du sol que les signaux conventionnels multipolarisés d’amplitude.

Tracking the attenuation and nonbreaking dissipation of swells using altimeters

A method for systematically tracking swells across oceanic basins is developed by taking advantage of high-quality data from space-borne altimeters and wave model output. The evolution of swells is observed over large distances based on 202 swell events with periods ranging from 12 to 18 s. An empirical attenuation rate of swell energy of about 4 × 10−7 m−1 is estimated using these observations, and the nonbreaking energy dissipation rates of swells far away from their generating areas are also estimated using a point source model. The resulting acceptance range of nonbreaking dissipation rates is −2.5 to 5.0 × 10−7 m−1, which corresponds to a dissipation e-folding scales of at least 2000 km for steep swells, to almost infinite for small-amplitude swells. These resulting rates are consistent with previous studies using in-situ and synthetic aperture radar (SAR) observations. The frequency dispersion and angular spreading effects during swell propagation are discussed by comparing the results with other studies, demonstrating that they are the two dominant processes for swell height attenuation, especially in the near field. The resulting dissipation rates from these observations can be used as a reference for ocean engineering and wave modeling, and for related studies such as air-sea and wind-wave-turbulence interactions.

Discriminação de incrementos de desflorestamento na Amazônia com dados SAR R99B em banda L

O uso de dados de sensoriamento remoto óptico em projetos de monitoramento de extensas áreas de floresta tropical é limitado devido à intensa cobertura por nuvens. Os dados SAR (Synthetic Aperture Radar) podem ser uma alternativa interessante para detectar desflorestamento nas regiões de floresta tropical onde a cobertura por nuvens é permanente. Neste contexto, o objetivo deste trabalho é avaliar o potencial do dado SAR adquirido em banda L pelo sistema aerotransportado R99B da Força Aérea Brasileira (FAB) para discriminar incremento de desflorestamento na Amazônia. Para tanto, foram realizadas classificações MAXVER-ICM com dados SAR multipolarizados de uma área teste localizada na região Sudeste do Estado do Acre. As classificações realizadas com a combinação dos canais HH, HV e VV e com o par de polarizações HH+HV obtiveram boa concordância com o mapa produzido no projeto PRODES (k = 0,68, onde k é o índice Kappa), o qual foi adotado como dado de referência. Este resultado indica que o dado SAR multipolarizado em banda L possui bom potencial para discriminar incremento de desflorestamento na Amazônia.

A Small Baseline DIFSAR Approach for Investigating Deformations on Full Resolution SAR Interferograms

This paper presents a differential synthetic apertureradar (SAR) interferometry (DIFSAR) approach for investigatingdeformation phenomena on full-resolution DIFSAR interferograms.In particular, our algorithm extends the capabilityof the small-baseline subset (SBAS) technique that relies onsmall-baseline DIFSAR interferograms only and is mainly focusedon investigating large-scale deformations with spatial resolutionsof about 100 100 m. The proposed technique is implemented byusing two different sets of data generated at low (multilook data)and full (single-look data) spatial resolution, respectively. Theformer is used to identify and estimate, via the conventional SBAStechnique, large spatial scale deformation patterns, topographicerrors in the available digital elevation model, and possibleatmospheric phase artifacts; the latter allows us to detect, onthe full-resolution residual phase components, structures highlycoherent over time (buildings, rocks, lava, structures, etc.), as wellas their height and displacements. In particular, the estimation ofthe temporal evolution of these local deformations is easily implementedby applying the singular value decomposition technique.The proposed algorithm has been tested with data acquired by theEuropean Remote Sensing satellites relative to the Campania area(Italy) and validated by using geodetic measurements.

Interferometría SAR en las islas Shetlend del Sur: modelo numérico de elevaciones de la Isla Decepción

La interferometría con imágenes de radar de apertura sintética (SAR: Synthetic Aperture Radar) desde satélite es una técnica que permite obtener información altimétrica del relieve terrestre, siendo especialmente útil en áreas remotas. Este trabajo muestra una aplicación de esta técnica en las islas Shetland del Sur (Antártida). Para ello se han utilizado imágenes SAR obtenidas por los satélites ERS (European Remote Sensing) de la Agencia Espacial Europea (ESA: European Space Agency) y un proceso interferométrico desarrollado entre el Departament de Geodinàmica i Geofísica de la Universitat de Barcelona y el Institut Cartogràfic de Catalunya.

Länsimaisten SAR/GMTI-tutkien suorituskyky

SAR/GMTI-tutka (Synthetic Aperture Radar/Ground Moving Target Indicator) tuottaa tiedustelutietoa johtamisen, tiedustelun, valvonnan ja maalinosoituksen tueksi. SAR/GMTI -tutka on luotettava tiedusteluväline tutkataajuusalueella tapahtuvan tiedustelutiedon tuottamisen ansiosta, jolloin tutkan käyttö ja tiedustelutiedon tuottaminen onnistuvat huonoissakin sääolosuhteissa. SAR/GMTI-tutkien käyttö on yleistynyt sotilaskäytössä viimeisen kahdenkymmenen vuoden aikana ja niillä on ollut suuri merkitys kaikissa suuremmissa konflikteissa kylmän sodan loppumisen jälkeen. SAR-tutka käyttää lavettina liikkuvaa alustaa, useimmiten lentokonetta, muodostaakseen virtuaalisen antenniryhmän ja signaaliprosessoinnin avulla, jolloin vastaanottimeen palautuvat kaiut sijoitetaan kohdilleen ja muodostetaan SAR-kuvaa. Tarkimmillaan nykyisten SARtutkien resoluutio on muutaman kymmenen senttimetrin luokkaa ja mittausetäisyydet suurimmillaan satoja kilometrejä. GMTI-tutka havaitsee liikkuvat kohteet, kun liikkuvista kohteista palautuvat kaiuilla on eri taajuus kuin ympäröivästä maastosta palautuvilla kaiuilla ja kohteet pystytään erottelemaan välkkeen seasta. GMTI-tutkan toiminta perustuu doppler-ilmiöön. SAR-tutkaa pystytään useimmiten käyttämään GMTI-moodissa. Sotilaskäytössä olevat GMTI-tutkat pystyvät havaitsemaan keskimäärin noin henkilöauton kokoisen maalin, joka liikkuu noin 5 km/h nopeudella. SAR/GMTI-tutkia on käytetty menestyksellisesti molemmissa Irakin sodissa Yhdysvaltojen toimesta, kun tasainen aavikko ei aiheuttanut juurikaan ongelmia alueen valvontaan ilmasta käsin. Sen sijaan haasteita SAR/GMTI-tutkille ovat aiheuttaneet operaatiot Balkanilla ja Afganistanissa korkean vuoriston, peitteisen maaston ja kohteiden hankalan tunnistettavuuden takia. Suoraan taistelun tukemiseen liittyen GMTI-tutkat ovat olleet hyödyllisiä, kun valvontakoneilta saadut tiedot liikkuvista vihollisosastoista on voitu lähettää datalinkkien kautta lähestulkoon reaaliajassa. SAR-tutkat ovat olleet hyödyllisiä ennen taisteluiden alkua tiedustelutiedon keräämisessä ja vaikeakulkuisessa maastossa SAR-tutkia on käytetty esimerkiksi taisteluvaikutuksen jälkiarviointiin. SAR/GMTI-tutkien suorituskyky kehittyy jatkuvasti laitteiden resoluution ja koon pienentyessä. Datalinkeillä voidaan välittää tietoa alajohtoportaille ja SAR/GMTI-tutkia on voitu sijoittaa esimerkiksi UAV-lennokkeihin (Unmanned Aerial Vehicle), joilla on voitu suorittaa tarkempaa aluevalvontaa kuin mitä isomman kokoluokan valvontakoneilla voitaisiin toteuttaa.

Interferometria SAR per lo studio di movimenti e generazione di modelli digitali del terreno in Antartide

Satellite SAR (Synthetic Aperture Radar) interferometry represents a valid technique for digital elevation models (DEM) generation, providing metric accuracy even without ancillary data of good quality. Depending on the situations the interferometric phase could be interpreted both as topography and as a displacement eventually occurred between the two acquisitions. Once that these two components have been separated it is possible to produce a DEM from the first one or a displacement map from the second one. InSAR DEM (Digital Elevation Model) generation in the cryosphere is not a straightforward operation because almost every interferometric pair contains also a displacement component, which, even if small, when interpreted as topography during the phase to height conversion step could introduce huge errors in the final product. Considering a glacier, assuming the linearity of its velocity flux, it is therefore necessary to differentiate at least two pairs in order to isolate the topographic residue only. In case of an ice shelf the displacement component in the interferometric phase is determined not only by the flux of the glacier but also by the different heights of the two tides. As a matter of fact even if the two scenes of the interferometric pair are acquired at the same time of the day only the main terms of the tide disappear in the interferogram, while the other ones, smaller, do not elide themselves completely and so correspond to displacement fringes. Allowing for the availability of tidal gauges (or as an alternative of an accurate tidal model) it is possible to calculate a tidal correction to be applied to the differential interferogram. It is important to be aware that the tidal correction is applicable only knowing the position of the grounding line, which is often a controversial matter. In this thesis it is described the methodology applied for the generation of the DEM of the Drygalski ice tongue in Northern Victoria Land, Antarctica. The displacement has been determined both in an interferometric way and considering the coregistration offsets of the two scenes. A particular attention has been devoted to investigate the importance of the role of some parameters, such as timing annotations and orbits reliability. Results have been validated in a GIS environment by comparison with GPS displacement vectors (displacement map and InSAR DEM) and ICEsat GLAS points (InSAR DEM).

Confronto tra stime GPS e SAR di deformazioni del suolo e di ritardi troposferici

Il Global Positioning System (GPS) e l’Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (InSAR) sono due tecniche osservative di grande importanza che utilizzano segnali nel campo delle microonde. Questa tesi intende contribuire a sviluppare una base di confronto tra i risultati derivati da queste due tecniche osservative. Una parte del lavoro riguarda uno studio delle deformazioni del suolo, in particolare, la stima dei movimenti verticali e di quelli che riguardano la componente Est della posizione delle stazioni. Un secondo ambito di ricerca è invece focalizzato alla determinazione del ritardo introdotto, nella propagazione dei segnali GPS e SAR, dal loro passaggio in atmosfera. In particolare, si è studiato l’effetto della componente umida della troposfera.

Técnica de Inversión Temporal para la Mejora del Enfocado de Imágenes SAR en Entornos Urbanos

Conventional SAR (Synthetic Aperture Radar) techniques only consider a single reflection of transmitted waveforms from targets. Nevertheless, today?s new applications force SAR systems to work in much more complex scenes such as urban environments. As a result, multiple-bounce returns are additionally superposed to direct echoes. We refer to these as ghost images, since they obscure true target image and lead to poor resolution. By applying Time Reversal concept to SAR imaging (TR-SAR), it is possible to reduce considerably ?or almost mitigate? ghosting artifacts, recovering the lost resolution due to multipath effects. Furthermore, some focusing indicators such as entropy (E), contrast (C) and Rényi entropy (RE) provide us a good focusing criterion when using TR-SAR.

Modelado y Mitigación de Fenómenos de Multitrayecto en Imágenes Radar mediante Técnicas basadas en Inversión Temporal

Las técnicas SAR (Synthetic Aperture Radar, radar de apertura sintética) e ISAR (Inverse SAR, SAR inverso) son sistemas radar coherentes de alta resolución, capaces de proporcionar un mapa de la sección radar del blanco en el dominio espacial de distancia y acimut. El objetivo de ambas técnicas radica en conseguir una resolución acimutal más fina generando una apertura sintética a partir del movimiento relativo entre radar y blanco. Los radares imagen complementan la labor de los sistemas ópticos e infrarrojos convencionales, especialmente en condiciones meteorológicas adversas. Los sistemas SAR e ISAR convencionales se diseñan para iluminar blancos en situaciones de línea de vista entre sensor y blanco. Por este motivo, presentan un menor rendimiento en escenarios complejos, como por ejemplo en bosques o entornos urbanos, donde los retornos multitrayecto se superponen a los ecos directos procedentes de los blancos. Se conocen como "imágenes fantasma", puesto que enmascaran a los verdaderos blancos y dan lugar a una calidad visual pobre, complicando en gran medida la detección del blanco. El problema de la mitigación del multitrayecto en imágenes radar adquiere una relevancia teórica y práctica. En esta Tesis Doctoral, se hace uso del concepto de inversión temporal (Time Reversal, TR) para mejorar la calidad visual de las imágenes SAR e ISAR eliminando las "imágenes fantasma" originadas por la propagación multitrayecto (algoritmos TR-SAR y TR-ISAR, respectivamente). No obstante, previamente a la aplicación de estas innovadoras técnicas de mitigación del multi-trayecto, es necesario resolver el problema geométrico asociado al multitrayecto. Centrando la atención en la mejora de las prestaciones de TR-ISAR, se implementan una serie de técnicas de procesado de señal avanzadas antes y después de la etapa basada en inversión temporal (el eje central de esta Tesis). Las primeras (técnicas de pre-procesado) están relacionadas con el multilook averaging, las transformadas tiempo-frecuencia y la transformada de Radon, mientras que las segundas (técnicas de post-procesado) se componen de un conjunto de algoritmos de superresolución. En pocas palabras, todas ellas pueden verse como un valor añadido al concepto de TR, en lugar de ser consideradas como técnicas independientes. En resumen, la utilización del algoritmo diseñado basado en inversión temporal, junto con algunas de las técnicas de procesado de señal propuestas, no deben obviarse si se desean obtener imágenes ISAR de gran calidad en escenarios con mucho multitrayecto. De hecho, las imágenes resultantes pueden ser útiles para posteriores esquemas de reconocimiento automático de blancos (Automatic Target Recognition, ATR). Como prueba de concepto, se hace uso tanto de datos simulados como experimentales obtenidos a partir de radares de alta resolución con el fin de verificar los métodos propuestos.

Improving Wishart Classification of Polarimetric SAR Data Using the Hopfield Neural Network Optimization Approach.

This paper proposes the optimization relaxation approach based on the analogue Hopfield Neural Network (HNN) for cluster refinement of pre-classified Polarimetric Synthetic Aperture Radar (PolSAR) image data. We consider the initial classification provided by the maximum-likelihood classifier based on the complex Wishart distribution, which is then supplied to the HNN optimization approach. The goal is to improve the classification results obtained by the Wishart approach. The classification improvement is verified by computing a cluster separability coefficient and a measure of homogeneity within the clusters. During the HNN optimization process, for each iteration and for each pixel, two consistency coefficients are computed, taking into account two types of relations between the pixel under consideration and its corresponding neighbors. Based on these coefficients and on the information coming from the pixel itself, the pixel under study is re-classified. Different experiments are carried out to verify that the proposed approach outperforms other strategies, achieving the best results in terms of separability and a trade-off with the homogeneity preserving relevant structures in the image. The performance is also measured in terms of computational central processing unit (CPU) times.

Study of the effects of moving targets in SAR images for their detection.

Synthetic Aperture Radar’s (SAR) are systems designed in the early 50’s that are capable of obtaining images of the ground using electromagnetic signals. Thus, its activity is not interrupted by adverse meteorological conditions or during the night, as it occurs in optical systems. The name of the system comes from the creation of a synthetic aperture, larger than the real one, by moving the platform that carries the radar (typically a plane or a satellite). It provides the same resolution as a static radar equipped with a larger antenna. As it moves, the radar keeps emitting pulses every 1/PRF seconds —the PRF is the pulse repetition frequency—, whose echoes are stored and processed to obtain the image of the ground. To carry out this process, the algorithm needs to make the assumption that the targets in the illuminated scene are not moving. If that is the case, the algorithm is able to extract a focused image from the signal. However, if the targets are moving, they get unfocused and/or shifted from their position in the final image. There are applications in which it is especially useful to have information about moving targets (military, rescue tasks,studyoftheflowsofwater,surveillanceofmaritimeroutes...).Thisfeatureiscalled Ground Moving Target Indicator (GMTI). That is why the study and the development of techniques capable of detecting these targets and placing them correctly in the scene is convenient. In this document, some of the principal GMTI algorithms used in SAR systems are detailed. A simulator has been created to test the features of each implemented algorithm on a general situation with moving targets. Finally Monte Carlo tests have been performed, allowing us to extract conclusions and statistics of each algorithm.