Performance-based structural fire design of steel frames using conventional computer software

Fire incident in buildings is common, so the fire safety design of the framed structure is imperative, especially for the unprotected or partly protected bare steel frames. However, software for structural fire analysis is not widely available. As a result, the performance-based structural fire design is urged on the basis of using user-friendly and conventional nonlinear computer analysis programs so that engineers do not need to acquire new structural analysis software for structural fire analysis and design. The tool is desired to have the capacity of simulating the different fire scenarios and associated detrimental effects efficiently, which includes second-order P-D and P-d effects and material yielding. Also the nonlinear behaviour of large-scale structure becomes complicated when under fire, and thus its simulation relies on an efficient and effective numerical analysis to cope with intricate nonlinear effects due to fire. To this end, the present fire study utilizes a second order elastic/plastic analysis software NIDA to predict structural behaviour of bare steel framed structures at elevated temperatures. This fire study considers thermal expansion and material degradation due to heating. Degradation of material strength with increasing temperature is included by a set of temperature-stress-strain curves according to BS5950 Part 8 mainly, which implicitly allows for creep deformation. This finite element stiffness formulation of beam-column elements is derived from the fifth-order PEP element which facilitates the computer modeling by one member per element. The Newton-Raphson method is used in the nonlinear solution procedure in order to trace the nonlinear equilibrium path at specified elevated temperatures. Several numerical and experimental verifications of framed structures are presented and compared against solutions in literature. The proposed method permits engineers to adopt the performance-based structural fire analysis and design using typical second-order nonlinear structural analysis software.

Bond performance of CFRP strengthened steel members subjected to axial compression

This paper focuses on the use of externally bonded Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) materials to strengthen steel plates subjected to compression. A fully slender steel section was selected in this test programme. CFRP strengthened steel plates and non strengthened plates were tested to fail under compressive load. The middle part of the strut was strengthened using CFRP sheet. The length of the strengthened zone was varied. Eight specimens were tested in this test programme. The test results showed a significant strength gain of 47% and delaying of lateral torsional buckling failure mode of strengthened members. This study confirms that there is great potential to increase the short term performance of CFRP strengthened steel structure under axial compression.

Experimental study on creep and shrinkage of high-performance ultra-lightweight cement composite of 60 MPa

Creep and shrinkage behaviour of an ultra lightweight cement composite (ULCC) up to 450 days was evaluated in comparison with those of a normal weight aggregate concrete (NWAC) and a lightweight aggregate concrete (LWAC) with similar 28-day compressive strength. The ULCC is characterized by low density < 1500 kg/m3 and high compressive strength about 60 MPa. Autogenous shrinkage increased rapidly in the ULCC at early-age and almost 95% occurred prior to the start of creep test at 28 days. Hence, majority of shrinkage of the ULCC during creep test was drying shrinkage. Total shrinkage of the ULCC during the 450-day creep test was the lowest compared to the NWAC and LWAC. However, corresponding total creep in the ULCC was the highest with high proportion attributed to basic creep (≥ ~90%) and limited drying creep. The high creep of the ULCC is likely due to its low elastic modulus. Specific creep of the ULCC was similar to that of the NWAC, but more than 80% higher than the LWAC. Creep coefficient of the ULCC was about 47% lower than that of the NWAC but about 18% higher than that of the LWAC. Among five creep models evaluated which tend to over-estimate the creep coefficient of the ULCC, EC2 model gives acceptable prediction within +25% deviations. The EC2 model may be used as a first approximate for the creep of ULCC in the designs of steel-concrete composites or sandwich structures in the absence of other relevant creep data.

Modelagem do comportamento dinâmico de passarelas tubulares em aço e mistas (aço-concreto)

A experiência dos engenheiros estruturais e os conhecimentos adquiridos pelo uso de materiais e novas tecnologias, têm ocasionado estruturas de aço e mistas (aço-concreto) de passarelas cada vez mais ousadas. Este fato tem gerado estruturas de passarelas esbeltas, e consequentemente, alterando os seus estados de limite de serviço e último associados ao seu projeto. Uma consequência direta desta tendência de projeto é o aumento considerável das vibrações das estruturas. Portanto, a presente investigação foi realizada com base em um modelo de carregamento mais realista, desenvolvido para incorporar os efeitos dinâmicos induzidos pela caminhada de pessoas. O modelo de carregamento considera a subida e a descida da massa efetiva do corpo em cada passo. A posição da carga dinâmica também foi alterada de acordo com a posição do pedestre sobre a estrutura e a função do tempo gerada, possui uma variação espacial e temporal. O efeito do calcanhar do pedestre também foi incorporado na análise. O modelo estrutural investigado baseia-se em uma passarela tubular (aço-concreto), medindo 82,5m. A estrutura é composta por três vãos (32,5 m, 20,0 m e 17,5 m, respectivamente) e dois balanços (7,5 m e 5,0 m, respectivamente). O sistema estrutural é constituído por perfis de aço tubular e uma laje de concreto, e é atualmente utilizada para travessia de pedestres. Esta investigação é realizada com base em resultados experimentais, relacionando a resposta dinâmica da passarela com as obtidas via modelos de elementos finitos. O modelo computacional proposto adota as técnicas de refinamento de malha, usualmente presente em simulações pelo método de elementos finitos. O modelo de elementos finitos foi desenvolvido e validado com resultados experimentais. Este modelo de passarela tubular permitiu uma avaliação dinâmica completa, investigando especialmente ao conforto humano e seus limites de utilização associados à vibração. A resposta dinâmica do sistema, em termos de acelerações de pico, foi obtida e comparada com os valores limites propostos por diversos autores e padrões de projeto. As acelerações de pico encontradas na presente análise indicou que a passarela tubular investigada apresentou problemas relacionados com o conforto humano. Por isso, foi detectado que este tipo de estrutura pode atingir níveis de vibrações excessivas que podem comprometer o conforto do usuário na passarela e especialmente a sua segurança.

Estudo do conforto humano em pisos mistos (aço-concreto) submetidos a ações humanas rítmicas.

Este trabalho de pesquisa objetiva o estudo do comportamento dinâmico de pisos mistos (aço-concreto), em edificações de andares múltiplos, sob o ponto de vista de conforto humano, quando essas estruturas encontram-se submetidas às atividades rítmicas provenientes dos seres humanos. A definição das ações dinâmicas atuantes sobre os modelos estruturais foi feita com base em resultados experimentais, com os indivíduos praticando atividades rítmicas e não rítmicas associadas à ginástica aeróbica e saltos à vontade. Os modelos estruturais investigados baseiam-se em edificações mistas de andares múltiplos. O sistema estrutural é do tipo misto (aço-concreto), composto por vigas de aço em seção do tipo I e laje de concreto armado. A análise fundamenta-se na modelagem computacional dos sistemas estruturais, através do Método dos Elementos Finitos (MEF). São empregadas técnicas usuais de discretização, por meio do emprego do programa ANSYS. Uma análise paramétrica foi desenvolvida sobre três modelos estruturais, com dois, três e quatro pavimentos. Os valores das acelerações máximas encontradas na análise são confrontados e comparados com os limites propostos por recomendações internacionais. Os resultados obtidos mostram que os limites recomendados em diversas normas de projeto foram ultrapassados. Esses resultados demonstram que atividades rítmicas oriundas dos seres humanos podem gerar acelerações de pico elevadas, violando critérios de projeto, no que concerne ao conforto humano. Foi observado também que estas ações dinâmicas podem comprometer o conforto humano em pisos adjacentes, próximos do local onde a carga dinâmica está sendo efetivamente aplicada.

Avaliação do efeito da interação solo estrutura sobre o comportamento estrutural de edificações em aço e mistas (aço concreto).

O conhecimento do tema da interação solo-estrutura permite que as edificações sejam projetadas de maneira mais realista com o comportamento físico. Há décadas atrás seria inviável um dimensionamento considerando a deformabilidade do solo de fundação, e as estruturas eram dimensionadas adotando-se as fundações como indeslocáveis, sob uma base rígida. Essa consideração conduz a respostas estruturais inadequadas, por vezes comprometendo a segurança e a estabilidade do conjunto estrutural. Atualmente, o avanço tecnológico permite a obtenção de resultados de milhões de cálculos matemáticos em questões de segundos, podendo-se obter soluções mais arrojadas e dinâmicas, facilitando o dimensionamento estrutural de forma a atender ao novo padrão de construção e arquitetura. A relevância de tal assunto motivou a análise numérica de um edifício de 4 pavimentos de estrutura mista (aço-concreto), considerando o efeito da interação solo-estrutura. As análises foram conduzidas com o programa ANSYS, de elementos finitos, substituindo-se os apoios indeslocáveis por molas discretas, lineares e elásticas, com rigidez equivalente ao solo, conforme hipótese de Winkler. Os parâmetros dos solos de fundação foram adquiridos a partir de correlações empíricas existentes na literatura e da utilização do programa computacional PLAXIS para a determinação das constantes elásticas das molas. Neste trabalho, foram comparados os resultados de reações verticais, esforços normais, momentos fletores e deslocamentos da estrutura obtidos pelo modelo clássico de projeto, que considera apoios indeslocáveis, e pelo modelo de Winkler, que considera a interação solo-estrutura. As análises foram executadas para seis diferentes tipos de solos argilosos, siltosos e arenosos. Os resultados obtidos mostraram claramente a redistribuição dos momentos fletores, esforços normais e reações verticais nos pilares com diferenças significativas para os pilares de canto e periféricos. Observou-se uma tendência de alívio dos esforços nos pilares mais solicitados, adotando a estrutura assentada em uma base rígida. As análises ressaltaram a relevância da interação solo-estrutura, com efeitos provenientes do rearranjo do solo de fundação nos elementos estruturais das edificações.

Compressive membrane action in composite floor slabs in the Cardington LBTF

This paper presents the results of an experimental study (the ultimate load capacity of composite metal decking/concrete floor slabs. Full-scale in situ testing of composite floor slabs was carried out in the Building Research Establishment's Large Building Test Facility (LBTF) at Cardington. A parallel laboratory test programme, which compared the behaviour of composite floor slabs strips, also carried out at Queen's University Belfast (QUB). Articular attention was paid to the contribution of compressive membrane action to the load carrying capacity. The results of both test programmes were compared with predictions by yield line theory and a theoretical prediction method in which the amount of horizontal restraint mid be assessed. The full-scale tests clearly demon-wed the significant contribution of compressive membrane effects to the load capacity of interior floor panels with a lesser contribution to edge/corner panels.

Fiber beam-columns models with flexure-shear interaction for nonlinear analysis of reinforced concrete structures

The aim of this study was to develop a model capable to capture the different contributions which characterize the nonlinear behaviour of reinforced concrete structures. In particular, especially for non slender structures, the contribution to the nonlinear deformation due to bending may be not sufficient to determine the structural response. Two different models characterized by a fibre beam-column element are here proposed. These models can reproduce the flexure-shear interaction in the nonlinear range, with the purpose to improve the analysis in shear-critical structures. The first element discussed is based on flexibility formulation which is associated with the Modified Compression Field Theory as material constitutive law. The other model described in this thesis is based on a three-field variational formulation which is associated with a 3D generalized plastic-damage model as constitutive relationship. The first model proposed in this thesis was developed trying to combine a fibre beamcolumn element based on the flexibility formulation with the MCFT theory as constitutive relationship. The flexibility formulation, in fact, seems to be particularly effective for analysis in the nonlinear field. Just the coupling between the fibre element to model the structure and the shear panel to model the individual fibres allows to describe the nonlinear response associated to flexure and shear, and especially their interaction in the nonlinear field. The model was implemented in an original matlab® computer code, for describing the response of generic structures. The simulations carried out allowed to verify the field of working of the model. Comparisons with available experimental results related to reinforced concrete shears wall were performed in order to validate the model. These results are characterized by the peculiarity of distinguishing the different contributions due to flexure and shear separately. The presented simulations were carried out, in particular, for monotonic loading. The model was tested also through numerical comparisons with other computer programs. Finally it was applied for performing a numerical study on the influence of the nonlinear shear response for non slender reinforced concrete (RC) members. Another approach to the problem has been studied during a period of research at the University of California Berkeley. The beam formulation follows the assumptions of the Timoshenko shear beam theory for the displacement field, and uses a three-field variational formulation in the derivation of the element response. A generalized plasticity model is implemented for structural steel and a 3D plastic-damage model is used for the simulation of concrete. The transverse normal stress is used to satisfy the transverse equilibrium equations of at each control section, this criterion is also used for the condensation of degrees of freedom from the 3D constitutive material to a beam element. In this thesis is presented the beam formulation and the constitutive relationships, different analysis and comparisons are still carrying out between the two model presented.

Nonlinear seismic behaviour of concrete arch bridges

Arch bridge structural solution has been known for centuries, in fact the simple nature of arch that require low tension and shear strength was an advantage as the simple materials like stone and brick were the only option back in ancient centuries. By the pass of time especially after industrial revolution, the new materials were adopted in construction of arch bridges to reach longer spans. Nowadays one long span arch bridge is made of steel, concrete or combination of these two as "CFST", as the result of using these high strength materials, very long spans can be achieved. The current record for longest arch belongs to Chaotianmen bridge over Yangtze river in China with 552 meters span made of steel and the longest reinforced concrete type is Wanxian bridge which also cross the Yangtze river through a 420 meters span. Today the designer is no longer limited by span length as long as arch bridge is the most applicable solution among other approaches, i.e. cable stayed and suspended bridges are more reasonable if very long span is desired. Like any super structure, the economical and architectural aspects in construction of a bridge is extremely important, in other words, as a narrower bridge has better appearance, it also require smaller volume of material which make the design more economical. Design of such bridge, beside the high strength materials, requires precise structural analysis approaches capable of integrating the combination of material behaviour and complex geometry of structure and various types of loads which may be applied to bridge during its service life. Depend on the design strategy, analysis may only evaluates the linear elastic behaviour of structure or consider the nonlinear properties as well. Although most of structures in the past were designed to act in their elastic range, the rapid increase in computational capacity allow us to consider different sources of nonlinearities in order to achieve a more realistic evaluations where the dynamic behaviour of bridge is important especially in seismic zones where large movements may occur or structure experience P - _ effect during the earthquake. The above mentioned type of analysis is computationally expensive and very time consuming. In recent years, several methods were proposed in order to resolve this problem. Discussion of recent developments on these methods and their application on long span concrete arch bridges is the main goal of this research. Accordingly available long span concrete arch bridges have been studied to gather the critical information about their geometrical aspects and properties of their materials. Based on concluded information, several concrete arch bridges were designed for further studies. The main span of these bridges range from 100 to 400 meters. The Structural analysis methods implemented in in this study are as following: Elastic Analysis: Direct Response History Analysis (DRHA): This method solves the direct equation of motion over time history of applied acceleration or imposed load in linear elastic range. Modal Response History Analysis (MRHA): Similar to DRHA, this method is also based on time history, but the equation of motion is simplified to single degree of freedom system and calculates the response of each mode independently. Performing this analysis require less time than DRHA. Modal Response Spectrum Analysis (MRSA): As it is obvious from its name, this method calculates the peak response of structure for each mode and combine them using modal combination rules based on the introduced spectra of ground motion. This method is expected to be fastest among Elastic analysis. Inelastic Analysis: Nonlinear Response History Analysis (NL-RHA): The most accurate strategy to address significant nonlinearities in structural dynamics is undoubtedly the nonlinear response history analysis which is similar to DRHA but extended to inelastic range by updating the stiffness matrix for every iteration. This onerous task, clearly increase the computational cost especially for unsymmetrical buildings that requires to be analyzed in a full 3D model for taking the torsional effects in to consideration. Modal Pushover Analysis (MPA): The Modal Pushover Analysis is basically the MRHA but extended to inelastic stage. After all, the MRHA cannot solve the system of dynamics because the resisting force fs(u; u_ ) is unknown for inelastic stage. The solution of MPA for this obstacle is using the previously recorded fs to evaluate system of dynamics. Extended Modal Pushover Analysis (EMPA): Expanded Modal pushover is a one of very recent proposed methods which evaluates response of structure under multi-directional excitation using the modal pushover analysis strategy. In one specific mode,the original pushover neglect the contribution of the directions different than characteristic one, this is reasonable in regular symmetric building but a structure with complex shape like long span arch bridges may go through strong modal coupling. This method intend to consider modal coupling while it take same time of computation as MPA. Coupled Nonlinear Static Pushover Analysis (CNSP): The EMPA includes the contribution of non-characteristic direction to the formal MPA procedure. However the static pushovers in EMPA are performed individually for every mode, accordingly the resulted values from different modes can be combined but this is only valid in elastic phase; as soon as any element in structure starts yielding the neutral axis of that section is no longer fixed for both response during the earthquake, meaning the longitudinal deflection unavoidably affect the transverse one or vice versa. To overcome this drawback, the CNSP suggests executing pushover analysis for governing modes of each direction at the same time. This strategy is estimated to be more accurate than MPA and EMPA, moreover the calculation time is reduced because only one pushover analysis is required. Regardless of the strategy, the accuracy of structural analysis is highly dependent on modelling and numerical integration approaches used in evaluation of each method. Therefore the widely used Finite Element Method is implemented in process of all analysis performed in this research. In order to address the study, chapter 2, starts with gathered information about constructed long span arch bridges, this chapter continuous with geometrical and material definition of new models. Chapter 3 provides the detailed information about structural analysis strategies; furthermore the step by step description of procedure of all methods is available in Appendix A. The document ends with the description of results and conclusion of chapter 4.

Steel Pedestrian Bridge to Protect a Unique Tree

This paper describes the “Variation Guggenheim 3: Mirador de la palmera” project, situated in Daya Vieja (Alicante-Spain). This structure is inspired by the Guggenheim museum of New York and is designed to protect a land-mark palm-tree from wind loads. This six – trunk palm tree was declared monument by the Valencian government in 2012. The structure that now protect it appears to fly around de palm tree creating a helicoidally skywalk made of steel, while retrofitting the lateral trunks of the tree to protect them from collapse. An 18 m. long straight beam starts on the top of this helix, and stretches towards a lookout point that offers a view of the whole village and its surroundings. The reduction of the visual impact of the structure on the tree was a major aim for the project design. The structural elements are as slender as possible to avoid the visual obstruction of tree. They are painted white, while the walkway steel corrugated plate is painted green in order to highlight its neat shape among the blur created by the apparent mess of bars of the supporting structure. The two main piles of this pedestrian bridge were designed in steel and geometrically resemble trees. A Ground Penetrating Radar analysis was performed to detect the palm root location and to decide the best foundation system. Slender cast in-situ steel-concrete micropiles along with a concrete pile-cap, raised some centimeters above the ground level, were used to reduce the damage to the roots. The projected pile-cap is a slender, continuous, circular ring; which geometry resembles a concrete bench. This structure has been a finalist in the Architecture Awards for the 2010-2014 best construction projects, held by the Diputación de Alicante.

Numerical modelling of non-load bearing light gauge cold-formed steel frame walls under fire conditions

Recently an innovative composite panel system was developed, where a thin insulation layer was used externally between two plasterboards to improve the fire performance of light gauge cold-formed steel frame walls. In this research, finite-element thermal models of both the traditional light gauge cold-formed steel frame wall panels with cavity insulation and the new light gauge cold-formed steel frame composite wall panels were developed to simulate their thermal behaviour under standard and realistic fire conditions. Suitable apparent thermal properties of gypsum plasterboard, insulation materials and steel were proposed and used. The developed models were then validated by comparing their results with available fire test results. This article presents the details of the developed finite-element models of small-scale non-load-bearing light gauge cold-formed steel frame wall panels and the results of the thermal analysis. It has been shown that accurate finite-element models can be used to simulate the thermal behaviour of small-scale light gauge cold-formed steel frame walls with varying configurations of insulations and plasterboards. The numerical results show that the use of cavity insulation was detrimental to the fire rating of light gauge cold-formed steel frame walls, while the use of external insulation offered superior thermal protection to them. The effects of real fire conditions are also presented.

Development of an Innovative Hybrid-Composite Floor System

This paper discusses the research carried out towards the development of a hybrid-composite floor plate systems (HCFPS) using polyurethane (PU), glass-fibre reinforced cement (GRC) and thin perforated steel laminate. HCFPS is configured in such a way where positive inherent properties of individual component materials are combined to offset any weakness and achieve the optimum performance. Finite Element modeling of HCFPS with ABAQUS 6.9-1, comparative studies of HCFPS with the steel deck composite system and experimental investigations which will be carried out are briefly described in the paper.