Penal Colonies

Prostitution has been closely associated with the transportation of women convicts to British penal colonies. Convict labor was used to found a number of British colonies including Barbados, Jamaica, Maryland, Virginia, Singapore, New South Wales, Tasmania, and Western Australia. Between 1607 and 1939, Britain transported approximately 400,000 convicts, 162,000 of whom came to Australia and about 50,000 to North America. Significant numbers of women were among those transported to the Australian and North American colonies, although their numbers were relatively small in comparison to male convicts. Transportation was typically reserved for the most recalcitrant of female offenders. Most women transported came from working-class populations, resided in metropolitan centers, and were single at the time of their offense. Although few of these women were actually sentenced for activities associated with prostitution, large numbers had a history of involvement with prostitution. Transportation was considered to offer prostitutes a chance at redemption, with colonial commentators drawing contrasts between the Old World and its vice-ridden sensuality and the colonies, which offered opportunities for redemption through religious devotion and hard work. Many women transported to the Australian colonies were described by officials as being "on the town" at their time of apprehension and were collectively considered to be "damned whores, possessed of neither virtue nor honesty". Recently, historians have argued that these assessments were emblematic of middle-class prejudices toward the open and aggressive sexuality of working-class women. The number of convict women involved in prostitution may have been higher than recorded crimes, typically involving "larceny", suggest. A number of women were charged with theft from men who had paid them (or, in some instances, refused to pay them) for sex. Historians have estimated that one in five convict women were part-time or full-time prostitutes before transportation. Many continued in prostitution after transportation, with prostitution becoming an important element in the social and economic life of the Australian colonies, where, between 1788-1830, men outnumbered women six to one. Officially, prostitution was tolerated to dissuade men from vice. For women, prostitution presented a means of securing physical protection and accommodation at a time when general amenities and employment opportunities were restricted.

Staubkorn im Sandsturm.

Fate of the Jewish physician Karl Goldberg, novel written in 1944. Novel is only partially autobiographical.

Pidyon HaBen Coin

Silver 10 Lirot coin. Obverse: 10 Lirot coin, emblem of the State of Israel. Reverse: Two arches and inscription.

Pidyon HaBen Coin

Silver 10 Lirot coin. Obverse: On the upper left nominal value 10 Lirot. Underneath the emblem of the State of Israel Reverse: 5 silver Shekalim minted in Jerusalem during the period of the war of the Jews against the Romans.

Pidyon HaBen Coin

Silver 10 Lirot coin. Obverse: Emblem of the State of Israel. Reverse: Two arches.

Pidyon HaBen Coin

Silver 10 Lirot coin. Obverse: Emblem of the State of Israel. Reverse: Two arches.

Pidyon HaBen Coin

Silver 10 Lirot coin. Obverse: 10 Lirot coin, emblem of the State of Israel. Reverse: 5 silver Sheqalim from Jerusalem from the period of the war of the Jews against the Romans.

Pidyon HaBen Coin

Obverse: 25 Lirot coin. Reverse: 5 coins from Jerusalem from the Roman period.

Pidyon HaBen Coin

Obverse: 25 silver Lirot coin. Reverse: 5 coins from Jerusalem from the Roman period.

Pidyon HaBen Coin

Obverse: 10 Lirot silver coin. Reverse: 5 coins from Jerusalem from Roman period.

Pidyon HaBen Coin

Obverse: Silver 25 Lirot coin. Reverse: Five pomegrante flowers round a five-pointed star and inscription

Pidyon HaBen Coin

Obverse: silver 25 Lirot coin. Reverse: five pomegrante flowers around five-pointed star, inscription.

Pidyon HaBen Coin

Obverse: Silver 25 Lirot coin. Reverse: Five pomegrante flowers around five-pointed star, inscription.

Pidyon HaBen Medal

Obverse: A chalice that served the Temple and five pomegranates. Around a crown based upon the seven varieties. Reverse: Inscription.

Avioliiton teologia Englannin kirkossa ja Suomen evankelis-luterilaisessa kirkossa vuosina 1963-2006

The theology of marriage in the Church of England(CofE) and in the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland(ELCF)1963–2006 The method of the study is a systematic analysis of the sources. In the CofE marriage stems from creation, but it is also sacramental, grounded in the theology of love and redemption. Man and woman have a connection between them that is a mystical union in character because of the one between Christ and the Church; therefore every marriage is sacramental. The purposes of marriage have been expressed in a different order than earlier. A caring relationship and sexuality are set before childbirth as the causes of marriage. The remedial cause of marriage is also moved to the background and it cannot be found in the recent wedding formulas. A personal relationship and marriage as a school of faith and love have a central place in the theology of marriage. The theology of love unites the love of God and marriage. In the CofE the understanding of divorce and co-habiting has changed, too. Co-habiting can now be understood as a stage towards marriage. Divorce has been understood as a phenomenon that must be taken as a fact after an irretrievable breakdown of marriage. Thus the church must concentrate on pastoral care after divorce. Similarly, the ELCF also maintains that the order of creation is the origin of marriage as a lifelong institution. This is also an argument for the solemnization of marriage in the church. Faith and grace are not needed for real marriage because marriage is the culmination of reason and natural law. The society defines marriage and the church gives its blessing to the married couples if so requested. Luther’s view of marriage is different from this because he saw marriage as a school of love and faith, similar to CofE. He saw faith as essential to enable the fullfillment of natural law. Marriage in the ELCF is mostly a matter of natural ethics. An ideal form of life is sought through the Golden Rule. This interpretation of marriage means that it does not presuppose Christian education for children to follow. The doctrine of the two kingdoms is definitely essential as background. It has been impugned by scholars, however, as a permanent foundation of marriage. There is a difference between the marriage formulas and the other sources concerning the purposes of marriage in the ELCF. The formulas do not include sexuality, childbirth or children and their education as purposes of marriage. The formulas include less theological vocabulary than in the CofE. The liturgy indicates the doctrine in CofE. In the Lutheran churches there is not any need to express the doctrine in the wedding formulas. This has resulted in less theology of marriage in the formulas. The theology of Luther is no longer any ruling principle in the theology of marriage. The process of continuing change in society refines the terms for marriage more than the theological arguments do.