Effect of the GABA B agonist baclofen on dipyrone-induced delayed gastric emptying in rats

Dipyrone administered intravenously (iv) or intracerebroventricularly (icv) delays gastric emptying (GE) in rats. Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) is the most potent inhibitory neurotransmitter of the central nervous system. The objective of the present study was to determine the effect of icv baclofen, a GABA B receptor agonist, on delayed GE induced by dipyrone. Adult male Wistar rats received a saline test meal containing phenol red as a marker. GE was indirectly evaluated by determining the percent of gastric retention (%GR) of the meal 10 min after orogastric administration. In the first experiment, the animals were injected iv with vehicle (Civ) or 80 mg/kg (240 µmol/kg) dipyrone (Dp iv), followed by icv injection of 10 µl vehicle (bac0), or 0.5 (bac0.5), 1 (bac1) or 2 µg (bac2) baclofen. In the second experiment, the animals were injected icv with 5 µl vehicle (Cicv) or an equal volume of a solution containing 4 µmol (1333.2 µg) dipyrone (Dp icv), followed by 5 µl vehicle (bac0) or 1 µg baclofen (bac1). GE was determined 10 min after icv injection. There was no significant difference between control animals from one experiment to another concerning GR values. Baclofen at the doses of 1 and 2 µg significantly reduced mean %GR induced by iv dipyrone (Dp iv bac1 = 35.9% and Dp iv bac2 = 26.9% vs Dp iv bac0 = 51.8%). Similarly, baclofen significantly reduced the effect of dipyrone injected icv (mean %GR: Dp icv bac1 = 30.4% vs Dp icv bac0 = 54.2%). The present results suggest that dipyrone induces delayed GE through a route in the central nervous system that is blocked by the activation of GABA B receptors.

The bradycardic and hypotensive responses to serotonin are reduced by activation of GABA A receptors in the nucleus tractus solitarius of awake rats

We investigated the effects of bilateral injections of the GABA receptor agonists muscimol (GABA A) and baclofen (GABA B) into the nucleus tractus solitarius (NTS) on the bradycardia and hypotension induced by iv serotonin injections (5-HT, 2 µg/rat) in awake male Holtzman rats. 5-HT was injected in rats with stainless steel cannulas implanted bilaterally in the NTS, before and 5, 15, and 60 min after bilateral injections of muscimol or baclofen into the NTS. The responses to 5-HT were tested before and after the injection of atropine methyl bromide. Muscimol (50 pmol/50 nl, N = 8) into the NTS increased basal mean arterial pressure (MAP) from 115 ± 4 to 144 ± 6 mmHg, did not change basal heart rate (HR) and reduced the bradycardia (-40 ± 14 and -73 ± 26 bpm at 5 and 15 min, respectively, vs -180 ± 20 bpm for the control) and hypotension (-11 ± 4 and -14 ± 4 mmHg, vs -40 ± 9 mmHg for the control) elicited by 5-HT. Baclofen (12.5 pmol/50 nl, N = 7) into the NTS also increased basal MAP, but did not change basal HR, bradycardia or hypotension in response to 5-HT injections. Atropine methyl bromide (1 mg/kg body weight) injected iv reduced the bradycardic and hypotensive responses to 5-HT injections. The stimulation of GABA A receptors in the NTS of awake rats elicits a significant increase in basal MAP and decreases the cardiac Bezold-Jarisch reflex responses to iv 5-HT injections.

In vivo photorelease of GABA in the mouse cortex

Electrical stimulation has been used for more than 100 years in neuroscientific and biomedical research as a powerful tool for controlled perturbations of neural activity. Despite quickly driving neuronal activity, this technique presents some important limitations, such as the impossibility to activate or deactivate specific neuronal populations within a single stimulation site. This problem can be avoided by pharmacological methods based on the administration of receptor ligands able to cause specific changes in neuronal activity. However, intracerebral injections of neuroactive molecules inherently confound the dynamics of drug diffusion with receptor activation. Caged compounds have been proposed to circumvent this problem, for spatially and temporally controlled release of molecules. Caged compounds consist of a protecting group and a ligand made inactive by the bond between the two parts. By breaking this bond with light of an appropriate wavelength, the ligand recovers its activity within milliseconds. To test these compounds in vivo, we recorded local field potentials (LFPs) from the cerebral cortex of anesthetized female mice (CF1, 60-70 days, 20-30 g) before and after infusion with caged γ-amino-butyric-acid (GABA). After 30 min, we irradiated the cortical surface with pulses of blue light in order to photorelease the caged GABA and measure its effect on global brain activity. Laser pulses significantly and consistently decreased LFP power in four different frequency bands with a precision of few milliseconds (P < 0.000001); however, the inhibitory effects lasted several minutes (P < 0.0043). The technical difficulties and limitations of neurotransmitter photorelease are presented, and perspectives for future in vivo applications of the method are discussed.

Couplage du récepteur à sept domaines transmembranaires GABA-B1 aux voies intracellulaires de signalisation en absence de GABA-B2

Le GABA est le principal neurotransmetteur inhibiteur du SNC et est impliqué dans le développement du cerveau, la plasticité synaptique et la pathogénèse de maladies telles que l’épilepsie, les troubles de l’anxiété et la douleur chronique. Le modèle actuel de fonctionnement du récepteur GABA-B implique l’hétérodimérisation GABA-B1/B2, laquelle est requise au ciblage à la surface membranaire et au couplage des effecteurs. Il y est cependant des régions du cerveau, des types cellulaires et des périodes du développement cérébral où la sous-unité GABA-B1 est exprimée en plus grande quantité que GABA-B2, ce qui suggère qu’elle puisse être fonctionnelle seule ou en association avec des partenaires inconnus, à la surface cellulaire ou sur la membrane réticulaire. Dans le cadre de cette thèse, nous montrons la capacité des récepteurs GABA-B1 endogènes à activer la voie MAPK-ERK1/2 dans la lignée dérivée de la glie DI-TNC1, qui n’exprime pas GABA-B2. Les mécanismes qui sous-tendent ce couplage demeurent mal définis mais dépendent de Gi/o et PKC. L’immunohistochimie de récepteurs endogènes montre par ailleurs que des anticorps GABA-B1 dirigés contre la partie N-terminale reconnaissent des protéines localisées au RE tandis des anticorps C-terminaux (CT) marquent une protéine intranucléaire. Ces données suggèrent que le domaine CT de GABA-B1 pourrait être relâché par protéolyse. L’intensité des fragments potentiels est affectée par le traitement agoniste tant en immunohistochimie qu’en immunobuvardage de type western. Nous avons ensuite examiné la régulation du clivage par le protéasome en traitant les cellules avec l’inhibiteur epoxomicine pendant 12 h. Cela a résulté en l’augmentation du marquage intranucléaire de GABA-B1-CT et d’un interacteur connu, le facteur de transcription pro-survie ATF-4. Dans des cellules surexprimant GABA-B1-CT, l’induction et la translocation nucléaire d’ATF-4, qui suit le traitement epoxomicine, a complètement été abolie. Cette observation est associée à une forte diminution du décompte cellulaire. Étant donné que les trois derniers résidus de GABA-B1-CT (LYK) codent un ligand pseudo-PDZ et que les protéines à domaines PDZ sont impliquées dans la régulation du ciblage nucléaire et de la stabilité de protéines, en complément de leur rôle d’échaffaud à la surface cellulaire, nous avons muté les trois derniers résidus de GABA-B1-CT en alanines. Cette mutation a complètement annulé les effets de GABA-B1-CT sur l’induction d’ATF-4 et le décompte cellulaire. Cette deuxième série d’expériences suggère l’existence possible de fragments GABA-B1 intranucléaires régulés par le traitement agoniste et le protéasome dans les cellules DI-TNC1. Cette régulation d’ATF-4 dépend des résidus LYK de GABA-B1-CT, qui modulent la stabilité de GABA-B1-CT et favorisent peut-être la formation d’un complexe multiprotéique incluant GABA-B1-CT, ATF-4, de même qu’une protéine d’échaffaudage inconnue. En somme, nous démontrons que les sous-unités GABA-B1 localisées au RE, lorsque non-hétérodimérisées avec GABA-B2, demeurent capables de moduler les voies de signalisation de la prolifération, la différentiation et de la survie cellulaire, via le couplage de protéines G et possiblement la protéolyse régulée. Les mécanismes de signalisation proposés pourraient servir de nouvelle plate-forme dans la compréhension des actions retardées résultant de l’activation des récepteurs 7-TMs.

Decreased GyBAA Receptor Function in the Brain Stem during Pancreatic Regeneration in Rats

Gamma amino outyric acid is a major inhibitory neurotrarsr titter in the central nervous system. In the preset study sv, Have investigate(' the alteration of GABA receptor, In t he hrain stem of rats during pancreatic regeneration. Three groups of rats were used for the study: sham operated, 72 It and 7 days partially pancreatectonnsea. GABA was (juan- (ified by [H]GABA receptor iispiacement method. GABA receptor kin: 10, pat at i et•ers were studied by using the binding of F'.](iAhA as ligand to the Triton X-100 treated me,i1,;-:mes a1,J displacement with unlabelled GABA. GhRA,v receptor activity was studied by using the [` -1 h3cuculline and displacement with unlabellecV euculline. ;.\13A content significantly decreased (1' < (1.(101 ) it, 0-e brain stern during the regeneration of pancreas. 'I hl, high affinity (IAI3A receptor binding sho?:ed it sigii'f cant decrease in 131„.,\ (P < 11.01) and K,I 1).05) n 72 h and 7 days after partial pancreatee 'timv. ";:flhicuculline hin(Iing showed it signih eat, 'le ( r(, :,e in /Jn1,s and K,I (P < 0.001) in 72 h pa^.rcreaw,, mised rats when compared with sham wt--tt' as P,n and K,I reversed to near sham after 7 da,s of pancreatectomv. The results sugge,) that GAB A throur,r; ('GABA receptors in brain Atcem has a regulatory uie during active regeneration of pancreas which will have inunense clinical significance in the treatment of cliahetcs.

Hepatic GABAA receptor functional regulation during rat liver cell proliferation

Gamma aminohutyric acid (GAB A.) receptor tunctionaI status was artaIV se(l in pa It ial hcpatcctoIn ised.II'II). lead nitrate (LN) induced hyperplastic and N-nifrosodiethylantinc INDEAI treated nctplastic rat Iivers during peak DNA synthesis. The high-affinity I'HJGALA binding significantly decreased in PII and NDEi\ rats and the receptor affinity decreased in NDEA and increased in LN rats compared with control . in NDEA. displacement analysis of I'I IIGABA with muscimol showed loss of low-allinity site and a shill of high-allinity cite towards low-allinity . ' 1 he affinity sites shifted towards high-affinity in LN rats. 'file number of low-allinity 1'I Ilhicuc)lline receptors decreased cignilic:uttly in NDEA and I'll whereas it increased in LN rats. (ir\Bi\t receptor :gunist. unrscinrul. disc dependcnllyinhihilcd epidermal growth factor IEGI--) induced DNA synthesis :uul enhanced the tr:utsfnrnting grmvth )actor (Il I I'(il (tlI mediated DNA synthesis suppression in prim:uy hepalucvte cultures . Our results suggest that GABA,t reccjhtor act as an inhibitory signal fur hepatic cell prolifctatiun.

Enhancement Of High Affinity Y-Aminobutyric Acid Receptor Binding In Cerebellum Of Pyridoxine-Deficient Rat

The high-affinity of [3H]y-aminobutyric acid (GABA) to GABAA receptors and [3H]baclofen to GABAB receptors were studied in the cerebellum of pyridoxine-deficient rats and compared to pyridoxine-supplemented controls. There was a significant increase in the maximal binding ( Bmax) of both GABAA and GABAB receptors with no significant difference in their binding affinities (Kd). The changes observed suggest a supersensitivity of GABAA and GABAB receptors which seems to correlate negatively with the concentration of GABA in the cerebellum of pyridoxine-deficient rats.

GABAA and GABAB Receptor Gene Expression and Functional Regulation During Pancreatic Regeneration and Insulin Secretion in Rats

The present study demonstrate the functional alterations of the GABAA and GABAB receptors and the gene expression during the regeneration of pancreas following partial pancreatectomy. The role of these receptors in insulin secretion and pancreatic DNA synthesis using the specific agonists and antagonists also are studied in vitro. The alterations of GABAA and GABAR receptor function and gene expression in the brain stem, crebellum and hypothalamus play an important role in the sympathetic regulation of insulin secretion during pancreatic regeneration. Previous studies have given much information linking functional interaction between GABA and the peripheral nervous system. The involvement of specific receptor subtypes functional regulation during pancreatic regeneration has not given emphasis and research in this area seems to be scarce. We have observed a decreased GABA content, down regulation of GABAA receptors and an up regulation of GABAB receptors in the cerebral cortex, brain stem and hypothalamus. Real Time-PCR analysis confirmed the receptor data in the brain regions. These alterations in the GABAA and GABAB receptors of the brain are suggested to govern the regenerative response and growth regulation of the pancreas through sympathetic innervation. In addition, receptor binding studies and Real Time-PCR analysis revealed that during pancreatic regeneration GABAA receptors were down regulated and GABAB receptors were up regulated in pancreatic islets. This suggests an inhibitory role for GABAA receptors in islet cell proliferation i.e., the down regulation of this receptor facilitates proliferation. Insulin secretion study during 1 hour showed GABA has inhibited the insulin secretion in a dose dependent manner in normal and hyperglycaemic conditions. Bicuculline did not antagonize this effect. GABAA agonist, muscimol inhibited glucose stimulated insulin secretion from pancreatic islets except in the lowest concentration of 1O-9M in presence of 4mM glucose.Musclmol enhanced insulin secretion at 10-7 and 10-4M muscimol in presence of 20mM glucose- 4mM glucose represents normal and 20mM represent hyperglycaemic conditions. GABAB agonist, baclofen also inhibited glucose induced insulin secretion and enhanced at the concentration of 1O-5M at 4mM glucose and at 10-9M baclofen in presence of 20mM glucose. This shows a differential control of the GABAA and GABAB receptors over insulin release from the pancreatic islets. During 24 hours in vitro insulin secretion study it showed that low concentration of GABA has inhibited glucose stimulated insulin secretion from pancreatic islets. Muscimol, the GABAA agonist, inhibited the insulin secretion but, gave an enhanced secretion of insulin in presence of 4mM glucose at 10-7 , 10-5 and 1O-4M muscimol. But in presence of 20mM glucose muscimol significantly inhibited the insulin secretion. GABAB agonist, baclofen also inhibited glucose induced insulin secretion in presence of both 4mM and 20mM glucose. This shows the inhibitory role of GABA and its specific receptor subtypes over insulin synthesis from pancreatic bete-islets. In vitro DNA synthesis studies showed that activation of GABAA receptor by adding muscimol, a specific agonist, inhibited islet DNA synthesis. Also, the addition of baclofen, a specific agonist of GABAB receptor resulted in the stimulation of DNA synthesis.Thus the brain and pancreatic GABAA and GABAB receptor gene expression differentially regulates pancreatic insulin secretion and islet cell proliferation during pancreatic regeneration. This will have immense clinical significance in therapeutic applications in the management of Diabetes mellitus.

Muscarinic M1, M3, Nicotinic,GABAA and GABAB Receptor Subtypes Gene Expression in Insulin Induced Hypoglycemic Rat Brain Regions: Functional Regulation through Phospholipase C and CREB Protein

In the present study, a detailed investigation on the alterations of muscarinic M1, M3, α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (α7 nAchR), GABA receptors and its subtypes; GABAAα1 and GABAB in the brain regions of streptozotocin induced diabetic and insulin induced hypoglycemic rats were carried out. Gene expression of acetylcholine esterase (AChE), choline acetyltransferase (ChAT), GAD, GLUT3, Insulin receptor, superoxide dismutase (SOD), Bax protein, Phospholipase C and CREB in hypoglycemic and hyperglycemic rat brain were studied. Muscarinic M1, M3 receptors, AChE, ChAT, GABAAα1, GABAB, GAD, Insulin receptor, SOD, Bax protein and Phospholipase C expression in pancreas was also carried out. The molecular studies on the CNS and PNS damage will elucidate the therapeutic role in the corrective measures of the damage to the brain during hypoglycemia and hyperglycemia.

Bone marrow cells differentiation to neurons in the rat brain using Serotonin and GABA:Their role on glutamate receptors, IP3, cAMP and cGMP functional regulation in unilateral Parkinsonism induced by 6-hydroxydopamine

Parkinson's disease is a chronic progressive neurodegenerative movement disorder characterized by a profound and selective loss of nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons. Our findings demonstrated that glutamatergic system is impaired during PD. The evaluations of these damages have important implications in understanding the molecular mechanism underlying motor, cognitive and memory deficits in PD. Our results showed a significant increase of glutamate content in the brain regions of 6- OHDA infused rat compared to control. This increased glutamate content caused an increase in glutamatergic and NMDA receptors function. Glutamate receptor subtypes- NMDAR1, NMDA2B and mGluR5 have differential regulatory role in different brain regions during PD. The second messenger studies confirmed that the changes in the receptor levels alter the IP3, cAMP and cGMP content. The alteration in the second messengers level increased the expression of pro-apoptotic factors - Bax and TNF-α, intercellular protein - α-synuclein and reduced the expression of transcription factor - CREB. These neurofunctional variations are the key contributors to motor and cognitive abnormalities associated with PD. Nestin and GFAP expression study confirmed that 5-HT and GABA induced the differentiation and proliferation of the BMC to neurons and glial cells in the SNpc of rats. We also observed that activated astrocytes are playing a crucial role in the proliferation of transplanted BMC which makes them significant for stem cell-based therapy. Our molecular and behavioural results showed that 5-HT and GABA along with BMC potentiates a restorative effect by reversing the alterations in glutamate receptor binding, gene expression and behaviour abnormality that occur during PD. The therapeutic significance in Parkinson’s disease is of prominence.

Cholinergic receptor subtypes functional regulation in spinal cord injured monoplegic rats

The present study deals with the Cholinergic Receptor subtypes functional regulation in spinal cord injured monoplegic rats: Effect of 5-HT GABA and bone marrow cells.Spinal cord injury causes permanent and irrevocable motor deficits and neurodegeneration. Disruption of the spinal cord leads to diminished transmission of descending control from the brain to motor neurons and ascending sensory information. Behavioural studies showed deficits in motor control and coordination in SCI rats. Cholinergic system plays an important role in SCI, the evaluation of which provides valuable insight on the underlying mechanisms of motor deficit that occur during SCI. The cholinergic transmission was studied by assessing the muscarinic and nicotinic receptors; cholinergic enzymes- ChAT and AChE; second messenger enzyme PLC; transcription factor CREB and second messengers - IP3, cAMP and cGMP. We observed a decrease in the cholinergic transmission in the brain and spinal cord of SCI rats. The disrupted cholinergic system is the indicative of motor deficit and neuronal degeneration in the spinal cord and brain regions. SCI mediated oxidative stress and apoptosis leads to neuronal degeneration in SCI rats. The decreased expression of anti oxidant enzymes – SOD, GPx and neuronal cell survival factors - BDNF, GDNF, IGF-1, Akt and cyclin D2 along with increased expression of apoptotic factors – Bax, caspase-8, TNFa and NF-kB augmented the neuronal degeneration in SCI condition. BMC administration in combination with 5-HT and GABA in SCI rats showed a reversal in the impaired cholinergic neurotransmission and reduced the oxidative stress and apoptosis. It also enhanced the expression of cell survival factors in the spinal cord region. In SCI rats treated with 5-HT and GABA, the transplanted BMC expressed NeuN confirming that 5-HT and GABA induced the differentiation and proliferation of BMC to neurons in the spinal cord. Neurotrophic factors and anti-apoptotic elements in SCI rats treated with 5-HT and GABA along with BMC rendered neuroprotective effects accompanied by improvement in behavioural deficits. This resulted in a significant reversal of altered cholinergic neurotransmission in SCI. The restorative and neuro protective effects of BMC in combination with 5-HT and GABA are of immense therapeutic significance in the clinical management of SCI.

Serotonin receptor subtypes functional regulation and oxidative stress mediated apoptosis in 6-hydroxydopamine lesioned Parkinsonian rats

Parkinson’s disease is a chronic progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by the selective loss of dopaminergic neurons in the SNpc resulting in severe motor impairments. Serotonergic system plays an important regulatory role in the pathophysiology of PD in rats, the evaluation of which provides valuable insight on the underlying mechanisms of motor, cognitive and memory deficits in PD. We observed a decrease in 5-HT content in the brain regions of 6-OHDA infused rat compared to control. The decreased 5-HT content resulted in a decrease of total 5-HT, 5-HT2A receptors and 5-HTT function and an increase of 5-HT2C receptor function. 5-HT receptor subtypes - 5-HT2A and 5-HT2C receptors have differential regulatory role on the modulation of DA neurotransmission in different brain regions during PD. Our observation of impaired serotonergic neurotransmission in SNpc, corpus striatum, cerebral cortex, hippocampus, cerebellum and brain stem demonstrate that although PD primarily results from neurodegeneration in the SNpc, the associated neurochemical changes in other areas of the brain significantly contributes to the different motor and non motor symptoms of PD. The antioxidant enzymes – SOD, CAT and GPx showed significant down regulation which indicates increased oxidative damage resulting in neurodegeneration. We also observed an increase in the level of lipid peroxidation. Reduced expression of anti-apoptotic Akt and enhanced expression of NF-B resulting from oxidative stress caused an activation of caspase-8 thus leading the cells to neurodegeneration by apoptosis. BMC administration in combination with 5-HT and GABA to PD rats showed reversal of the impaired serotonergic neurotransmission and oxidative stress mediated apoptosis. The transplanted BMC expressed NeuN confirming that 5-HT and GABA induced the differentiation and proliferation of BMC to neurons in the SNpc along with an increase in DA content and an enhanced expression of TH. Neurotrophic factors – BDNF and GDNF rendered neuroprotective effects accompanied by improvement in behavioural deficits indicating a significant reversal of altered dopaminergic and serotonergic neurotransmission in PD. The restorative and neuroprotective effects of BMC in combination with 5-HT and GABA are of immense therapeutic significance in the clinical management of PD.

Evidence that GABA rho subunits contribute to functional ionotropic GABA receptors in mouse cerebellar Purkinje cells

Ionotropic gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA) receptors composed of heterogeneous molecular subunits are major mediators of inhibitory responses in the adult CNS. Here, we describe a novel ionotropic GABA receptor in mouse cerebellar Purkinje cells (PCs) using agents reported to have increased affinity for rho subunit-containing GABA(C) over other GABA receptors. Exogenous application of the GABA(C)-preferring agonist cis-4-aminocrotonic acid (CACA) evoked whole-cell currents in PCs, whilst equimolar concentrations of GABA evoked larger currents. CACA-evoked currents had a greater sensitivity to the selective GABA(C) antagonist (1,2,5,6-tetrahydropyridin-4-yl)methylphosphinic acid (TPMPA) than GABA-evoked currents. Focal application of agonists produced a differential response profile; CACA-evoked currents displayed a much more pronounced attenuation with increasing distance from the PC soma, displayed a slower time-to-peak and exhibited less desensitization than GABA-evoked currents. However, CACA-evoked currents were also completely blocked by bicuculline, a selective agent for GABA(A) receptors. Thus, we describe a population of ionotropic GABA receptors with a mixed GABA(A)/GABA(C) pharmacology. TPMPA reduced inhibitory synaptic transmission at interneurone-Purkinje cell (IN-PC) synapses, causing clear reductions in miniature inhibitory postsynaptic current (mIPSC) amplitude and frequency. Combined application of NO-711 (a selective GABA transporter subtype 1 (GAT-1) antagonist) and SNAP-5114 (a GAT-(2)/3/4 antagonist) induced a tonic GABA conductance in PCs; however, TPMPA had no effect on this current. Immunohistochemical studies suggest that rho subunits are expressed predominantly in PC soma and proximal dendritic compartments with a lower level of expression in more distal dendrites; this selective immunoreactivity contrasted with a more uniform distribution of GABA(A) alpha 1 subunits in PCs. Finally, co-immunoprecipitation studies suggest that rho subunits can form complexes with GABA(A) receptor alpha 1 subunits in the cerebellar cortex. Overall, these data suggest that rho subunits contribute to functional ionotropic receptors that mediate a component of phasic inhibitory GABAergic transmission at IN-PC synapses in the cerebellum.

Effect of a nanostructured dendrimer-naloxonazine complex on endogenous opioid peptides mu(1) receptor-mediated post-ictal antinociception

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Natriorexigenic effect of baclofen is reduced by AT(1) receptor blockade in the lateral parabrachial nucleus

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)