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Predictive Models for Tomato Spotted Wilt Virus Spread Dynamics, Considering Frankliniella occidentalis Specific Life Processes as Influenced by the Virus

Several models have been studied on predictive epidemics of arthropod vectored plant viruses in an attempt to bring understanding to the complex but specific relationship between the three cornered pathosystem (virus, vector and host plant), as well as their interactions with the environment. A large body of studies mainly focuses on weather based models as management tool for monitoring pests and diseases, with very few incorporating the contribution of vector's life processes in the disease dynamics, which is an essential aspect when mitigating virus incidences in a crop stand. In this study, we hypothesized that the multiplication and spread of tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV) in a crop stand is strongly related to its influences on Frankliniella occidentalis preferential behavior and life expectancy. Model dynamics of important aspects in disease development within TSWV-F. occidentalis-host plant interactions were developed, focusing on F. occidentalis' life processes as influenced by TSWV. The results show that the influence of TSWV on F. occidentalis preferential behaviour leads to an estimated increase in relative acquisition rate of the virus, and up to 33% increase in transmission rate to healthy plants. Also, increased life expectancy; which relates to improved fitness, is dependent on the virus induced preferential behaviour, consequently promoting multiplication and spread of the virus in a crop stand. The development of vector-based models could further help in elucidating the role of tri-trophic interactions in agricultural disease systems. Use of the model to examine the components of the disease process could also boost our understanding on how specific epidemiological characteristics interact to cause diseases in crops. With this level of understanding we can efficiently develop more precise control strategies for the virus and the vector.

Effects of Low Molecular Weight Sulfated Galactan Fragments From Botryocladia Occidentalis on the Pharmacological and Enzymatic Activity of Spla2 From Crotalus Durissus Cascavella

Low molecular weight fragments of sulfated galactans (Boc-5 and Boc-10) from the red algae Botryocladia occidentalis significantly inhibited Crotalus durissus cascavella sPLA2 enzymatic activity. Equimolar ratios of sPLA2 to Boc-5 or Boc-10 resulted in allosteric inhibition of sPLA2. Under the conditions tested, we observed that both Boc-5 and Boc-10 strongly decreased edema, myonecrosis, and neurotoxicity induced by native sPLA2.

Tospoviruses - An Australian perspective

The detection, distribution, molecular and biological properties, vector relations and control of tospoviruses present in Australia, including Tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV), Capsicum chlorosis virus (CaCV) and Iris yellow spot virus (IYSV), are reviewed. TSWV occurs throughout Australia where it has caused serious sporadic epidemics since it was first described in the 1920s. The frequency and distribution of outbreaks has increased in the 1990s, with the arrival and dispersal of the western flower thrips (Frankliniella occidentalis) being one factor favouring this situation. The crops most frequently and severely affected are capsicum, lettuce, tomato, potato and several species of ornamentals. Minimal differences were found between the nucleocapsid (N) gene amino acid sequences of Australian isolates and these were most closely related to a clade of northern European isolates. CaCV was first detected in Australia in 1999 and is most closely related to Watermelon silver mottle virus, a serogroup IV tospovirus. The natural hosts include capsicum, tomato, peanut and Hoya spp. The virus also occurs in Thailand and Taiwan. IYSV was first found in Australia in 2003, infecting onion and leek, with the distribution in three States suggesting that the virus has been present for some time.

Seasonal abundance of thrips (Thysanoptera) in capsicum and chilli crops in south-east Queensland, Australia

Thrips can be important pests of capsicum and chilli crops, causing damage through their feeding and by vectoring viral diseases. As different species vary in their ability to transmit viruses and in their susceptibility to insecticides, it is important to know which species are present in a crop. The seasonal occurrence of thrips in capsicum and chilli crops in the Bundaberg district of south-east Queensland was investigated from July 2002 to June 2003. Fifty flowers were collected weekly from crops on seven farms and the adult thrips extracted and identified. Thrips palmi Karny and Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande) were collected in the greatest numbers, with T. palmi predominant in autumn crops (March to July) and F. occidentalis predominant in spring crops (August to November). Pseudanaphothrips achaetus (Bagnall) was common, while Thrips tabaci Lindeman, Thrips imaginis Bagnall and Frankliniella schultzei (Trybom) were collected in low numbers.

Paulo Orosio : una interpretación de la historiografía providencialista cristiana ante la caída de Roma en el 410

Resumen: En el entramado histórico del mundo Romano, la vida política y religiosa se han visto imbricadas de modo particular. El mito político ha sido fundamental para hilvanar el devenir de los hechos históricos centrales en el modo de vida de los romanos. La caída de Roma o el fin de la Pars Occidentalis del Imperio Romano han servido de arquetipo histórico o de referente político para el resto de los Imperios del Mundo Occidental. En ese contexto se insertará este trabajo, que pretenderá echar luz a una temática rodeada por líneas historiográficas y analíticas no solo diferentes sino antagónicas. El centro de la discordia historiográfica de hoy se pondrá en sincronía con la discordia histórica de ayer, puesto que tanto los paganos como los cristianos forjaron durante la Tardo-antigüedad un mito de fin de ciclo, que le agrega una fascinación particular a esta temática. En este trabajo me abocaré a interpretar la postura del historiador romano - cristiano Paulo Orosio, quien describió su propia visión sobre los hechos que antecedieron y provocaron, la caída de Roma.

Ecological condition of coastal ocean waters along the U.S. Western Continental Shelf: 2003

Executive Summary: The western National Coastal Assessment (NCA-West) program of EPA, in conjunction with the NOAA National Ocean Service (NOS), conducted an assessment of the status of ecological condition of soft sediment habitats and overlying waters along the western U.S. continental shelf, between the target depths of 30 and 120 m, during June 2003. NCA-West and NOAA/NOS partnered with the West Coast states (Washington (WA), Oregon (OR), and California (CA)), and the Southern California Coastal Water Research Project (SCCWRP) Bight ’03 program to conduct the survey. A total of 257 stations were sampled from Cape Flattery, WA to the Mexican border using standard methods and indicators applied in previous coastal NCA projects. A key study feature was the incorporation of a stratified-random sampling design with stations stratified by state and National Marine Sanctuary (NMS) status. Each of the three states was represented by at least 50 random stations. There also were a total of 84 random stations located within NOAA’s five NMSs along the West Coast including the Olympic Coast NMS (OCNMS), Cordell Bank NMS (CBNMS), Gulf of Farallones NMS (GFNMS), Monterey Bay NMS (MBNMS), and Channel Islands NMS (CINMS). Collection of flatfish via hook-and-line for fish-tissue contaminant analysis was successful at 50 EMAP/NCA-West stations. Through a collaboration developed with the FRAM Division of the Northwest Fisheries Science Center, fish from an additional 63 stations in the same region and depth range were also analyzed for fish-tissue contaminants. Bottom depth throughout the region ranged from 28 m to 125 m for most stations. Two slightly deeper stations from the Southern California Bight (SCB) (131, 134 m) were included in the data set. About 44% of the survey area had sediments composed of sands (< 20% silt-clay), about 47% was composed of intermediate muddy sands (20-80% silt-clay), and about 9% was composed of muds (> 80% silt-clay). The majority of the survey area (97%) had relatively low percent total organic carbon (TOC) levels of < 2%, while a small portion (< 1%) had high TOC levels (> 5%), in a range potentially harmful to benthic fauna. Salinity of surface waters for 92% of the survey area were > 31 psu, with most stations < 31 psu associated with the Columbia River plume. Bottom salinities ranged only between 31.6 and 34.4 psu. There was virtually no difference in mean bottom salinities among states or between NMS and non-NMS stations. Temperatures of surface water (range 8.5 -19.9 °C) and bottom water (range 5.8 -14.7 °C) averaged several degrees higher in CA in comparison to WA and OR. The Δσt index of watercolumn stratification indicated that about 31% of the survey area had strong vertical stratification of the water column. The index was greatest for waters off WA and lowest for CA waters. Only about 2.6 % of the survey area had surface dissolved oxygen (DO) concentrations ≤ 4.8 mg/L, and there were no values below the lower threshold (2.3 mg/L) considered harmful to the survival and growth of marine animals. Surface DO concentrations were higher in WA and OR waters than in CA, and higher in the OC NMS than in the CA sanctuaries. An estimated 94.3% of the area had bottom-water DO concentrations ≤ 4.8 mg/L and 6.6% had concentrations ≤ 2.3 mg/L. The high prevalence of DO from 2.3 to 4.8 mg/L (85% of survey area) is believed to be associated with the upwelling of naturally low DO water across the West Coast shelf. Mean TSS and transmissivity in surface waters (excluding OR due to sample problems) were slightly higher and lower, respectively, for stations in WA than for those in CA. There was little difference in mean TSS or transmissivity between NMS and non-NMS locations. Mean transmissivity in bottom waters, though higher in comparison to surface waters, showed little difference among geographic regions or between NMS and non-NMS locations. Concentrations of nitrate + nitrite, ammonium, total dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN) and orthophosphate (P) in surface waters tended to be highest in CA compared to WA and OR, and higher in the CA NMS stations compared to CA non-sanctuary stations. Measurements of silicate in surface waters were limited to WA and CA (exclusive of the SCB) and showed that concentrations were similar between the two states and approximately twice as high in CA sanctuaries compared to OCNMS or nonsanctuary locations in either state. The elevated nutrient concentrations observed at CA NMS stations are consistent with the presence of strong upwelling at these sites at the time of sampling. Approximately 93% of the area had DIN/P values ≤ 16, indicative of nitrogen limitation. Mean DIN/P ratios were similar among the three states, although the mean for the OCNMS was less than half that of the CA sanctuaries or nonsanctuary locations. Concentrations of chlorophyll a in surface waters ranged from 0 to 28 μg L-1, with 50% of the area having values < 3.9 μg L-1 and 10% having values > 14.5 μg L-1. The mean concentration of chlorophyll a for CA was less than half that of WA and OR locations, and concentrations were lowest in non-sanctuary sites in CA and highest at the OCNMS. Shelf sediments throughout the survey area were relatively uncontaminated with the exception of a group of stations within the SCB. Overall, about 99% of the total survey area was rated in good condition (<5 chemicals measured above corresponding effect range low (ERL) concentrations). Only the pesticides 4,4′-DDE and total DDT exceeded corresponding effect range-median (ERM) values, all at stations in CA near Los Angeles. Ten other contaminants including seven metals (As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Ag, Zn), 2-methylnaphthalene, low molecular weight PAHs, and total PCBs exceeded corresponding ERLs. The most prevalent in terms of area were chromium (31%), arsenic (8%), 2-methylnaphthalene (6%), cadmium (5%), and mercury (4%). The chromium contamination may be related to natural background sources common to the region. The 2-methylnaphthalene exceedances were conspicuously grouped around the CINMS. The mercury exceedances were all at non-sanctuary sites in CA, particularly in the Los Angeles area. Concentrations of cadmium in fish tissues exceeded the lower end of EPA’s non-cancer, human-health-risk range at nine of 50 EMAP/NCA-West and nine of 60 FRAM groundfish-survey stations, including a total of seven NMS stations in CA and two in the OCNMS. The human-health guidelines for all other contaminants were only exceeded for total PCBs at one station located in WA near the mouth of the Columbia River. Benthic species richness was relatively high in these offshore assemblages, ranging from 19 to 190 taxa per 0.1-m2 grab and averaging 79 taxa/grab. The high species richness was reflected over large areas of the shelf and was nearly three times greater than levels observed in estuarine samples along the West Coast (e.g NCA-West estuarine mean of 26 taxa/grab). Mean species richness was highest off CA (94 taxa/grab) and lower in OR and WA (55 and 56 taxa/grab, respectively). Mean species richness was very similar between sanctuary vs. non-sanctuary stations for both the CA and OR/WA regions. Mean diversity index H′ was highest in CA (5.36) and lowest in WA (4.27). There were no major differences in mean H′ between sanctuary vs. nonsanctuary stations for both the CA and OR/WA regions. A total of 1,482 taxa (1,108 to species) and 99,135 individuals were identified region-wide. Polychaetes, crustaceans and molluscs were the dominant taxa, both by percent abundance (59%, 17%, 12% respectively) and percent species (44%, 25%, 17%, respectively). There were no major differences in the percent composition of benthic communities among states or between NMSs and corresponding non-sanctuary sites. Densities averaged 3,788 m-2, about 30% of the average density for West Coast estuaries. Mean density of benthic fauna in the present offshore survey, averaged by state, was highest in CA (4,351 m-2) and lowest in OR (2,310 m-2). Mean densities were slightly higher at NMS stations vs. non-sanctuary stations for both the CA and OR/WA regions. The 10 most abundant taxa were the polychaetes Mediomastus spp., Magelona longicornis, Spiophanes berkeleyorum, Spiophanes bombyx, Spiophanes duplex, and Prionospio jubata; the bivalve Axinopsida serricata, the ophiuroid Amphiodia urtica, the decapod Pinnixa occidentalis, and the ostracod Euphilomedes carcharodonta. Mediomastus spp. and A. serricata were the two most abundant taxa overall. Although many of these taxa have broad geographic distributions throughout the region, the same species were not ranked among the 10 most abundant taxa consistently across states. The closest similarities among states were between OR and WA. At least half of the 10 most abundant taxa in NMSs were also dominant in corresponding nonsanctuary waters. Many of the abundant benthic species have wide latitudinal distributions along the West Coast shelf, with some species ranging from southern CA into the Gulf of Alaska or even the Aleutians. Of the 39 taxa on the list of 50 most abundant taxa that could be identified to species level, 85% have been reported at least once from estuaries of CA, OR, or WA exclusive of Puget Sound. Such broad latitudinal and estuarine distributions are suggestive of wide habitat tolerances. Thirteen (1.2%) of the 1,108 identified species are nonindigenous, with another 121 species classified as cryptogenic (of uncertain origin), and 208 species unclassified with respect to potential invasiveness. Despite uncertainties of classification, the number and densities of nonindigenous species appear to be much lower on the shelf than in the estuarine ecosystems of the Pacific Coast. Spionid polychaetes and the ampharetid polychaete Anobothrus gracilis were a major component of the nonindigenous species collected on the shelf. NOAA’s five NMSs along the West Coast of the U.S. appeared to be in good ecological condition, based on the measured indicators, with no evidence of major anthropogenic impacts or unusual environmental qualities compared to nearby nonsanctuary waters. Benthic communities in sanctuaries resembled those in corresponding non-sanctuary waters, with similarly high levels of species richness and diversity and low incidence of nonindigenous species. Most oceanographic features were also similar between sanctuary and non-sanctuary locations. Exceptions (e.g., higher concentrations of some nutrients in sanctuaries along the CA coast) appeared to be attributable to natural upwelling events in the area at the time of sampling. In addition, sediments within the sanctuaries were relatively uncontaminated, with none of the samples having any measured chemical in excess of ERM values. The ERL value for chromium was exceeded in sediments at the OCNMS, but at a much lower percentage of stations (four of 30) compared to WA and OR non-sanctuary areas (31 of 70 stations). ERL values were exceeded for arsenic, cadmium, chromium, 2- methylnaphthalene, low molecular weight PAHs, total DDT, and 4,4′-DDE at multiple sites within the CINMS. However, cases where total DDT, 4,4′-DDE, and chromium exceeded the ERL values were notably less prevalent at CINMS than in non-sanctuary waters of CA. In contrast, 2-methylnaphthalene above the ERL was much more prevalent in sediments at the CINMS compared to non-sanctuary waters off the coast of CA. While there are natural background sources of PAHs from oil seeps throughout the SCB, this does not explain the higher incidence of 2-methylnaphthalene contamination around CINMS. Two stations in CINMS also had levels of TOC (> 5%) potentially harmful to benthic fauna, though none of these sites exhibited symptoms of impaired benthic condition. This study showed no major evidence of extensive biological impacts linked to measured stressors. There were only two stations, both in CA, where low numbers of benthic species, diversity, or total faunal abundance co-occurred with high sediment contamination or low DO in bottom water. Such general lack of concordance suggests that these offshore waters are currently in good condition, with the lower-end values of the various biological attributes representing parts of a normal reference range controlled by natural factors. Results of multiple linear regression, performed using full model procedures to test for effects of combined abiotic environmental factors, suggested that latitude and depth had significant influences on benthic variables regionwide. Latitude had a significant inverse influence on all three of the above benthic variables, i.e. with values increasing as latitude decreased (p< 0.01), while depth had a significant direct influence on diversity (p < 0.001) and inverse effect on density (p <0.01). None of these variables varied significantly in relation to sediment % fines (at p< 0.1), although in general there was a tendency for muddier sediments (higher % fines) to have lower species richness and diversity and higher densities than coarser sediments. Alternatively, it is possible that for some of these sites the lower values of benthic variables reflect symptoms of disturbance induced by other unmeasured stressors. The indicators in this study included measures of stressors (e.g., chemical contaminants, eutrophication) that are often associated with adverse biological impacts in shallower estuarine and inland ecosystems. However, there may be other sources of humaninduced stress in these offshore systems (e.g., bottom trawling) that pose greater risks to ambient living resources and which have not been captured. Future monitoring efforts in these offshore areas should include indicators of such alternative sources of disturbance. (137pp.) (PDF contains 167 pages)

Breeding populations of seabirds in California, 1989-1991. Volume I - population estimates

In 1989-1991, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service surveyed breeding populations of seabirds on the entire California coast. This study was sponsored by the Minerals Management Service in relation to outer continental shelf oil and gas leasing. At 483 nesting sites (excluding terns and skimmers in southern California), we estimated 643,307 breeding birds of 21 seabird species including: 410 Fork-tailed Storm-petrel (Oceanodroma furcata); 12,551 Leach's Storm-petrel (O. leucorhoa); 7,209 Ashy Storm-petrel (O. homochroa); 274 Black Storm-petrel (O. melania); 11,916 Brown Pelican (Pelecanus occidentalis); 10,037 Double-crested Cormorant (Phalacrocorax auritus); 83,394 Brandt's Cormorant (P. penicillatus); 14,345 Pelagic Cormorant (P. pelagicus); 888 Black Oystercatcher (Haemotopus bachmani); 4,764 California Gull (Larus californicus); 61,760 Western Gull (L. occidentalis); 2,838 Caspian Tern (Sterna caspia) (excluding southern California); 3,550 Forster's Tern (S. forsteri) (excluding southern California); 272 Least Tern (S. albifrons) (excluding southern California); 351,336 Common Murre (Uria aalge); 15,470 Pigeon Guillemot (Cepphus columba); 1,821 Marbled Murrelet (Brachyramphus marmoratus); 1,760 Xantus' Murrelet (Endomychura hypoleuca); 56,562 Cassin's Auklet (Ptychoramphus aleuticus); 1,769 Rhinoceros Auklet (Cerorhinca monocerata); and 276 Tufted Puffin (Fratercula cirrhata). The inland, historical or hybrid breeding status of American White Pelican (P. erythrorynchus), American Oystercatcher (H. palliatus), Heermann's Gull (L. heermanni), Ring-billed Gull (L. delawarensis), Glaucous-winged Gull (L. glaucescens) and Black Tern (Chlidonias niger) are discussed. Estimates for Gull-billed Tern (S. nilotica), Royal Tern (S. maxima), Elegant Tern (S. elegans) and Black Skimmer (Rhynchops niger) will be included in the final draft of this report. Overall numbers were slightly lower than reported in 1975-1980 surveys (summarized in Sowls et al. 1980. Catalog of California seabird colonies. U.S. Dept. Int., Fish Wildl. Serv., Biol. Serv. Prog., FWS/OBS 37/80). Recent declines were found or suspected for Fork-tailed Storm-petrel, Leach's Storm-petrel, White Pelican, Black Tern, Caspian Tern, Least Tern, Common Murre and Marbled Murrelet. Recent increases were found or suspected for Brown Pelican, Double-crested cormorant, California Gull, Western Gull, Forster's Tern and Rhinoceros Auklet. Similar numbers were found for other species or trends could not be determined without additional surveys, studies and/or more in-depth comparisons with previous surveys. The status of terns and skimmers in southern California has not yet been finalized.

水杉的分类、历史地理分布及其与古气候变迁的关系

本文所用标本为采自中国东北晚白垩世或古新世黑龙江省嘉荫县乌云组和早始新世辽宁省抚顺市西露天矿古城子组和计军屯组的水杉植物化石。标本包括营养结构如两种小枝，生殖结构如雄花枝和雌球果。本论文对水杉的形态结构包括叶表皮及在雄球花苞叶的上下表皮结构及花粉结构作了详细的研究。 水杉属目前已建立21个种，由于保存的原因，多数种建立在保存下来的都分器的特征上。通过对中国东北材料与曾建立的14个种M. milleri，M. glyptostroboides, M. disticha, M. japonica, M. chinensis, M. cuneata, M. papillapollenites, M. miocenica, M. kimurae, M. onukii, M. europaea, M. asiatica, M. nathorstii, M. occidentalis 之间进行的详细对比，发现这些种之间存在着极大的相似性。现代水杉M. glyptostroboides的研究非常详细，且化石种缺乏足够的特征与其相对比，因此现代水杉可作为一个生活种而存在。M. milleri和M. glyptostroboides相比较表明：二者的雄球花及木材的解剖结构特征不同，以上其他的化石种由于保存的局限性，不具有可与M. milleri对此的相应的解剖特征，认为化石种M. milleri成立。M. disticha, M. japonica, M. chinensis, M. cuneata, M. papillapolenites, M. miocenica, M. kimurae, M. onukii, M. europaea, M. asiatica, M. nathorstii 11个化石种均归于M. occidentalis。由于M. wigginsii, M. neosibirica, M. krysthofovichi, M. spitzbergensis, M. paradoxa 5个种仅建立在具有互生叶的小枝或叶表皮的基础上，M. sibirica和M. klerkiana两个种仅建立在木材解剖的结构特征上,故此7个种有待于进一步研究.因此,水杉属下确定存的有3个种:1个现代种:M. glyptostroboides;2个化石种:M. occidentalis和M. Milleri. 本文还通过收集水杉栽培状况的资料,对水杉生长的环境和生长状况统计分析,得出水杉生存繁衍的气候条件要求范围:年降水量为1000.0 - 1865.5 mm,年均温为13-16 ℃, 一月均温为-3.1至4.2 ℃,极端低温为-12 ℃, 七月均温为17.7 - 27.9 ℃。这一条件也是水杉在地质克史时期分布区应该具备的气候限制因素。本文通过收集大量的文献资料得到水杉从晚白垩世至今在全球范围内的分布状况，发现：由于自晚白垩世以来气候逐渐转冷的变化，水杉的分布范围也在逐渐变小，最后仅自然分布于中国中部湘鄂川三省的交界。以时间为横轴，水杉分布的纬度为纵轴得到水杉分布的纬度变化曲线，从各个时期最北界为点建立的曲线的起伏变化表明，除从古新世至始新世曲线稍微升高外，晚白垩世以来曲线大都在下降，反映了气温在古新世晚期略微升高，其它时期都在下降之中，这一结论与氧同位素的结论基本一致。

杉科植物的表皮结构研究及古环境重建

全球古近纪和新近纪气候波动明显，很多科学家对古近纪和新近纪生物演化和气候演变规律的定量研究给予了相当的重视。杉科植物有长期发展的历史、少数的现存种和丰富的化石记录，成为指示古环境的理想植物之一。利用杉科植物重建古环境，首先要对化石植物进行正确的分类鉴定。杉科各属枝叶形态特征变异幅度较大，且枝叶排列和形态特征近似，有时各属之间存在交叉特征。杉科化石标本通常仅保存枝叶形式，且多个属的化石标本经常发现于同一地层，因而分类鉴定比较困难。植物的叶表皮结构是压型植物化石细胞信息的重要来源，是属种分类鉴定重要依据之一。本文在以往研究的基础上，完整分析了杉科9属现生植物的表皮特征，建立了杉科化石植物分类鉴定的现生植物的表皮特征参照系。 杉科植物的叶多为条形、钻形、鳞形或披针形，同种植物有1种、2种甚至3种叶型。其中水杉属的叶交互对生，其它属的叶螺旋状互生。水杉属的多数表皮细胞垂周壁明显弯曲，落羽杉属和杉木属有时微呈波状，其他属的表皮细胞垂周壁直。多数植物的叶片近轴面和远轴面的气孔数量和分布不同。一般来说，条形叶和披针形叶的远轴面气孔分布状况和气孔数量稳定，远轴面的中部最稳定。条形叶远轴面的气孔分布于中脉两侧，形成纵向的气孔带。条形叶近轴面气孔分布状况和气孔数量变化大，近轴面的气孔数量有时与远轴面近似，但多数情况下比远轴面少，有时整个叶片的近轴面仅少数几个气孔或没有气孔分布。钻形叶的近轴面和远轴面的气孔数量近似，或叶片近轴面的气孔数量比远轴面的气孔数量多，气孔分布范围也比远轴面气孔分布范围广。气孔椭圆形，落羽杉属植物和水松鳞形叶的气孔长轴方向与叶片长轴垂直或斜向排列，柳杉属植物的气孔多斜向排列，水松的条形叶和条状钻形叶的气孔多平行向排列。落羽杉属和柳杉属以外的杉科植物的气孔长轴多数与叶片长轴平行。在扫描电子显微镜下的密叶杉属植物叶片角质层的内表面，副卫细胞和表皮细胞的垂周壁与叶表面的角度一致，且副卫细胞的形态与表皮细胞类似，这种特殊气孔器被称为A-型气孔器。杉科植物中水杉属、落羽杉属和杉木属的气孔器近似密叶杉的这种A-型气孔器。台湾杉属、柳杉属、水松属、红杉属和巨杉属植物的气孔器与这种A-型气孔器不同，这几属的副卫细胞垂周壁表皮细胞的垂周壁方向不同，且副卫细胞的形态与表皮细胞的形态明显不同。因而气孔所有副卫细胞组成呈明显的圆盘状，保卫细胞在盘子的中央。综合分析植物的枝叶形态和表皮特征可以区分杉科各属。 本文研究了采自抚顺始新世的杉科植物标本，经枝叶特征、表皮结构和球果鳞片等特征分析为水松属的欧洲水松。论文分析了中国东北地区古温度定量研究结果与杉科植物的相关性。抚顺植物群发现有化石水杉M. occidentalis、中华红杉和欧洲水松，根据这三种化石植物的年均温度和年降水量，通过共存分析，推测抚顺始新世的年均温为12.1-17℃，年降水量为1199.6-2231mm。