植物N;P计量化学：中国高等之外的分异规律与野外试验初步验证

元素化学计量学指从化学计量学的角度出发，通过分析比较生命物质不同结构层次（分子、细胞、器官、机体、种群、群落等）或生态系统中元素的相对比值，来研究各层次相互之间以及生态学过程中元素之间的关系。生态化学计量学研究可以把生态实体的各个层次存元素水平上统一起来，足近年来新兴的一个生态学研究领域，广泛应用于生态学研究中。C，N，P是生物地球化学循环中的重要元素，在生态系统中占有重要地位，许多环境问题都与它们有关，由此这三种元素的化学计量学受到生态学家们的普遍关注。C:N:P化学计量学在水生生态系统中研究较为深入，目前已发展到染色体水平，而在陆地生态系统中的研究较为匮乏近年来由于人类活动的强烈影响，这三种元素的循环在速度和规模上都发生了前所未有的改变，导致一系列环境问题的出现，因此C：N:P化学计量学在陆地生态系统中的研究就显得尤为重要。作为地球生命存在基础的绿色植物，在地球上已有数亿年的演化历史，研究陆地植物的元素化学计量学不仅有助于深入了解植物存在于地球上的内在机制，而且可以为许多环境问题的解决提供理论依据。本文首先建立中国不同地区植物氮磷含量数据库，通过数据分析找出一般规律，并进一步揭示植物不同进化阶段N:P化学计量比的变化规律。在此基础上，通过在内蒙古羊草草原设立不同施肥样地来模拟自然界不同氮磷环境，从试验水平上研究不同施肥处理及施肥梯度下生态系统中氮、磷、有机质的变化规律，并从化学计量学角度研究其内在机制。 利州新建成的中国维管植物数据库（包含1603种植物）研究了不同进化水平以及不同功能群（生活型）间植物N:P比的变化规律，并沿胡焕庸线（胡线）把中团分为为东西两部分，从总体水平上对比了东、西部间叫植物氮磷含量以及N：P的异同。结果表明：l）从演化水平来看，尽管氮磷含量表现出极大的差异，除豆科植物外，植物N：P基本保持稳定水平;2）木本植物与草本植物的N：P比差异．显著，木本植物之间（常绿乔木，常绿灌木，落叶乔木，落叶灌木）N：P不具有显著差异;3）中国东西部植物养分含量和N：P比表现出极显著差异，东部的养分含量低于西部，而N:P显著高于西部。 在内蒙古羊草草原两块永久实验样地（样地A：1980年围封样地和样地B：1999年田封样地）进行了为期两年的N素和P素添加试验。氮素添加梯度为0，5，15，30，50，80 g NHN03.m.2.yr-1。P素添加梯度为0，2，4，8，16，and 32 g P2Osm-2 yr-1（仪分析了羊草器官的结果）。分别从植物器官、物种、功能群水平研究了N素添加对N:P化学计量学的影响，此外还研究了土壤和凋落物C：N:P化学计量学对N素添加的响应。结合生物量的变化趋势，探讨了元素化学计量学对养分状况的指示作用。 1．羊草器官对施肥的响应结果表明，添加N素可以显著提高羊草器官中的含N量，p素可以显著提高器官中的含P量：除2001年样地A中的根茎外，根茎中的含P量基本不受N素添加的影响;茎中的含P量同样表现出不受N素添加影响的趋势（2000年B区茎除外）：N素添加可以显著增大羊草叶片中的含P量(B区2000年叶片除外)。P素添加对羊草器官的含N量没有影响;羊草器官中的氮磷含量施肥处理下表现出显著的正相关关系（N素添加下B区叶片除外）。N素添加对羊草器官的N:P比没有显著影响（A区茎2000年和B区叶片2000年除外）：P素添加显著降低了羊草器官中的N:P比。 2．四种优势植物（羊草、羽茅、针茅和苔草）地上生物量和N:P化学计量学对氮肥的响应研究发现，四个物种的氮磷含量均具有极显著相关关系;氮肥可以显著提高样地A中的羽茅生物量，降低苔草的生物量，而使样地B中的羊草生物量增大;两块样地中，四个物种的氮磷含量及N：P比均随N素水平的增高而增大（样地A中的羽茅N:P比除外）。 3．基于生活型划分的功能群（多年生根茎禾草，多年生丛生禾草，豆科植物，多年生杂类草，一二年生植物，灌木和半灌木）对N素添加的响应研究表明：施N可以提高样地A中的多年生丛生禾草的生物量，而使样地B中的多年生根苇禾草增加;多年生杂类草的相对多度在两个样地中均随施氨水平的增加而显著 降低：在样地B中，施氮可以显著提高不同功能群的氮磷含量;在样地A中，功能群N、P含量对施肥的响应并没有一致的变化规律，添加N素可以显著提高不同功能群的含N量（豆科植物除外），多年生根茎禾草和多年生杂类草的P含量有显著增大的趋势（P < 0.005），而其它功能群（豆科植物、灌木和小半灌木、多年生杂类草和～二年生杂类草）的P含量基本恒定（P>0.05）;在样地A中，多年生丛生禾草，多年生杂类草，一二年生植物，灌木和半灌木的N：P比随施氨水平的增加而显著增大，多年生根茎禾草和豆科植物的N:P比基本不变;在样地B中，多年生丛生禾草的N:P比随施氨水平的增加而显著增大，多年生根茎禾草、多年生杂类草和…二年生杂类草不受施氨水平的影响。 4．添加N素对根实验结果表明：两块样地中，上层根(0-10 cm)的生物量仅在施N后第一年显著增加，而下层根(10-20 cm)的地下生物量在两年的施N处理下均不受施肥梯度的影响i在样地A中，施肥后第一年对根的N、P含量影响不显著，施肥后第二年可以显著增大上层根的N、P含量;在样地B中，添加N素后第一年可以显著增大根的含P量; 在两个样地中，两年的N肥处理对根的N：P比没有显著影响：在施氨处理中，根的N、P含量及N:P比在施肥第一年的响应要高于第二年。 5．所有处理中，上层土壤(O-lO cm)养分含量（有机碳，全氮，全磷）均高于下层土壤（10-20 cm）;在样地A中，氮素添加对r十壤有机碳没有显著性作用，在施肥第一年可以显著增加上层土壤的N、P含量，而在施肥后第二年对土壤N、P含量没有显著影响;在样地B中，添加N素对两年的土壤养分均没有显著影响：养分添加两个样地土壤中的元素比值（C:N比，C:P比，N:P比）没有显著影响;土壤养分对施N一年后的响应要高于第二年。 6．养分添加对凋落物化学特征及化学计量学特征的影响研究结果表明：凋落物现存量不受施肥的影响;2001年凋落物现存量与2000年和2001年的地上生物量相关关系不显著;添加N素可以显著提高凋落物的N含量，而对有机碳含量和P含量没有显著影响;凋落物C：N比随施肥梯度的增大而显著降低，N:P比显著增高，而C:P比没有明显变化。 以上研究结果表明，不同植物功能群的N:P比存在差异，人类活动强烈影响自然植被中的植物N：P比;但植物的N：P比不受植物进化的影响（豆科植物除外）;由于植物已有数亿年的演化历史，同时N与P在植物的结构和功能上具有密切的联系，在生物地球化学循环中办存在耦合作用。因此植物N：P比值恒定可能是一普适性规律。 N素添加试验表明，在植物根、地上器官、物种和功能群水平上N与P均呈显著正相关关系，反映了植物体内的氮磷含量具有协同作用。共存种对N肥的响应不同，表明物种受不同元素的制约。因此除非把生态系统中所有物种对施肥的响应刻画清楚，笼统的认定生态系统缺乏某种元素是不适当的。 施肥试验表明，两种围封时间样地的主要限制性元素不同。极度退化(样地B)植物生长主要缺N，而在保护较好样地(样地A)，P也逐步成为一种限制因素。反映了随着保护时间的增加，植物生长逐渐由N限制型向N、P共同限制型过渡。添加的养分要么被植物吸收，挥发到大气中，或以凋落物的形式返还到土壤表层。但是对养分的预算有待于进一步研究。土壤中的养分含量对N素添加有…个滞后效应，而植物响应较为迅速。功能群N:P比在施肥实验中不能保持恒定，可能是由于实验时间较短的缘故;化学计量学的研究表明羊草草原分解凋落物的微生物受P素的制约，可能是由于植物体内具有高的P素再转运机制。这一结论有待于进一步的验证。氮肥降低了凋落物的C:N比，因此凋落物的分解速率可能将要发生改变。这需要进一步开展C循环的研究。

中国东北样带草原段关键种——羊草茎、叶显微结构的生态可塑性及群落功能群组成和多样性研究

陆地样带是国际地圈——生物圈计划(IGBP)研究中最引入注目的创新之一。目前，国际上已经设立了15条陆地样带，研究内容涉及环境梯度分析、气候变化对植被初级生产力的影响及环境变化、土地利用等与植被变化的对应关系等。沿该陆地样带分布较广的关键种生理适应性等方面对影响其生理功能形态结构的研究较少，特别是茎、叶等组织功能研究较少。 中国东北样带(NECT)是全球陆地样带的重要组成部分，多年来已开展了大量深入系统的研究工作，已成为我国生态学、地学等学科的重要研究平台。本研究以中国东北样带中西段广泛分布的重要关键种——羊草（Leymus chinensis）为研究对象，分析了羊草茎、叶显微结构的生态可塑性及其与水分利用效率的关系，进而阐述了羊草适应不同生境条件，特别是适应水分变化的机制，为揭示羊草及其种群、群落乃至以羊草为优势种或建群种的草地生态系统在全球变化背景下的发展趋势提供理论依据。 基于2001年7～8月第3次中国东北样带考察资料，采用高精度Olympus显微镜及C同位素分析技术（δ13C判别值），结合在野外取样过程中测定的样地土壤含水量和海拔高度，以及近十年各样地年降水量和年均温度气象资料，分析了羊草茎、叶显微结构和水分利用变化与环境因子的关系，以及以羊草为建群种或共建种的无牧和放牧样地群落生物量、物种多样性和植物功能型组成变化与环境因子的关系。 结果表明：羊草叶片表面及内部主要显微结构特征参数各样地间有不同程度的差异，其中气孔密度与降水量呈线性正相关。代表气孔开张程度的气孔长度和宽度变化与土壤含水量呈线性相关。叶表面角质层厚度与海拔高度变化关系较大，并以上表面角质层厚度变化最为明显，主要受海拔高度升高引起的紫外线照射增强的影响。运动细胞带宽度占叶面积比虽然与各环境因子关系不很密切，但温度变化的影响较突出，这一显微结构调整与气孔变化构成干旱——高温调节机制。叶片表面毛茸的变化也是非常显著的，但与各环境因子关系密切程度均不大，可以肯定的是在土壤水分状况较好的生境下羊草叶片表面毛茸密度及长度明显增加，而一些干旱生境中常表现为毛茸较少、较短，个别样地基本没有发育较好的毛茸。总体上看，羊草叶片对干旱化的形态结构调整以气孔密度和开张程度的变化最大，是羊草叶片调节水分利用效率的重要适应性生态可塑性调整。 与叶片相比，羊草茎横切面结构特征的变化与各环境因子关系的显著性不是很强，但各样地间的差异是比较显著的，许多结构调整可能与土壤养分条件的变化有一定关系，如茎秆粗度变化、基本薄壁组织厚度和中央空腔（髓腔）直径的变化等，但本研究未能涉及这方面内容，有待于进一步研究。 羊草水分利用效率与降水量和土壤含水量呈显著的负相关关系，即随降水量和土壤含水量增大羊草水分利用效率明显降低，蒸腾耗水增大，这一生理变化与显微结构的调整关系密切，特别是气孔密度与气孔宽度在水分较差生境中明显减小，从而有利于适应干旱环境，减少耗水量。表现比较突出的是非地带性林西样地，其降水量处于10个样地的中等偏低水平，但其δ13C判别值较低，达-26.063‰，与降水量较大的长岭、双辽样地几乎相当，并比相邻的林东和克旗样地明显低，其气孔密度、开张程度及叶脉后生导管直径均较高（大），但其土壤水分状况是最好的样地之一，尽管取样时不幸遇到雨天，但从其群落类型——羊草杂类草草甸，并伴生许多中、湿生种类上看，其生境的湿润程度是毋庸置疑的。这一非地带性样地中羊草结构的变化从另一侧面反映了羊草显微结构调整对水分环境的适应。δ13C判别值是一个非常敏感的参数，在分析植物水分利用效率及其相关领域的研究中应深入利用。 群落植物功能群组成与环境因子及群落初级生产力关系研究结果表明，丛生禾草生长型功能群、旱生和中旱生植物水分生态类型功能群具有明显的地带性变化规律，并与群落生物量变化关系密切，变异性较低，占群落生物量比例较大，可考虑作为植物功能型组合对无牧样地植被变化进行评估和预测。在放牧影响下，C4植物光合类型功能群呈现明显的地带性变化，并在群落中所起的作用明显增强，亦可考虑作为评估和预测植被变化的植物功能型组合。无牧样地与放牧样地研究结果均表明，按Raunkiaer划分的地面芽、地下芽、地上芽和一年生植物生活型功能群，其地带性变化不明显，或变异率高，或占群落生物量比例小，不宜作植物功能群组合对植被变化进行评估和预测。

锡林河流域温带草地植物VOC释放及其对草地生态系统碳循环的贡献

植物源挥发性有机碳化合物（Volitale organic compounds, VOC）是大气VOC的主要来源，与对流层大气质量、大气化学密切相关。鉴于温带草地的分布范围很广，草地植物VOC释放潜力某种程度上影响植物源VOC的总释放量。另外，植物源VOC也是光合作用固定碳素的损失方式之一，可能在特定区域或生态系统中具有重要意义。基于上述想法，本文设计了四个方面的实验作为研究内容：1） 温带草地物种水平VOC释放潜力、及其与植物功能群的关系？2) 沙地植物物种水平VOC释放潜力、及其与植物功能群的关系？3) 沙地植物-草地植物VOC释放潜力存在显著性差异吗？4) 温带典型草地和退化草地的VOC释放速率如何？在生态系统水平，植物源VOC对温带草地碳循环的贡献多大？ 在所测定的175种温带草地植物中，不同植物间异戊二烯和单萜释放潜力差异很大;除少数物种外，大多数植物的异戊二烯和单萜释放潜力都较低，尤其是典型草地的优势物种。在此基础上，作者探讨了分类学赋值方法对温带草地植被的可行性，并初步建立了锡林河流域温带草地植物的VOC释放目录（共277种植物）。另外，温带草地植物的异戊二烯和单萜释放潜力与植物功能群（植物生活型和水分功能群）具有一定的联系，尤其是植物生活型。总的来说，温带草原的优势生活型（物种），即多年生根茎禾草（或多年生丛生禾草），具有较低的异戊二烯和单萜释放潜力。各水分功能群间差异不显著，但中旱生植物、旱中生植物 (温带草原的优势功能群)，具有较低的异戊二烯、单萜释放潜力。因此，温带草原退化过程中，那些具有较高VOC释放潜力的植物，重要性将会增加。 沙地植物种类组成非常丰富，不同物种间的异戊二烯和单萜释放潜力变异也很大。另外，沙地植物的异戊二烯和单萜释放潜力与其功能群间关系较密切，不同植物生活型间差异显著;其中也以多年生根茎禾草、多年生从生禾草的释放潜力最低，而乔木的释放潜力相对最高;该结论基本与草地的研究结论一致。然而，沙地植物的异戊二烯和单萜释放潜力与其水分功能群的关系比较模糊，中生植物具有更高的释放潜力，湿生植物的释放潜力较小。 通过对比沙地植物和草地植物的释放潜力，发现沙地植物的异戊二烯和单萜释放潜力比草地植物高，且这种差异整体上显著。另外，这种显著性差异，在不同植物生活型、水分功能群间也同样存在。沙地植物比对应的草地植物具有更高的异戊二烯和单萜释放潜力，最可能的原因：沙地正午的温度明显比草地温度高，前者实测温度可超过 45 ℃,这种经常性、周期性高温，促使沙地植物采用与草地植物不同的适应策略，即沙地植物通过释放更多的异戊二烯或单萜来减少其可能遭的热胁迫或热伤害，这种长期适应策略，使沙地植物具有更高的萜类化合物释放潜力。 本文还调查了温带典型草地生态系统和退化草地生态系统的异戊二烯和单萜释放速率，结果表明典型草地的标准异戊二烯和单萜释放速率分别为0.50 μgC g-1 h-1和0.69 μgC g-1 h-1;退化草地的标准异戊二烯和单萜释放潜力分别为0.32 μgC g-1 h-1和1.59 μgC g-1 h-1。总的来说，温带草地的异戊二烯和单萜释放速率都比较低，尤其是典型草地。整个生长季，典型草地释放的异戊二烯和单萜分别为31.6 mgC•m-2　和 70.4 mgC•m-2;退化草地的异戊二烯和单萜释放量分别为20.8 mgC•m-2 和 168.8 mgC•m-2。退化草地萜类化合物总释放速率远高于典型草地，尤其是单萜释放能力。过度放牧引起的草地退化，通过改变植被种类组成，对温带草地的异戊二烯和单萜释放速率产生显著影响;总体而言，温带草地退化将会使草地释放更多萜类化合物。 在温带草地生态系统中，Clost as VOC相对其NPP而言很小，在环境PAR和温度高时,它的贡献率相对较大;Clost as VOC约占典型草地生态系统NEP的5.32 %，退化草地生态系统NEP的0.23 %。植物源VOC释放所损失的碳素相对草地生态系统NPP而言几乎可以忽略不计;但是，相对其NEP，Clost as VOC还是具有一定的相关性。虽然，草地生态系统Clost as VOC对NPP或NEP的贡献率较小，但考虑到全球尺度植物源VOC的巨大释放速率，它在碳循环中的贡献率仍然不容忽视;在某些特殊的生态系统中，仍可能扮演重要角色。

放牧对草原群落主要植物种和功能群水分来源与水分利用效率的影响

水分是半干旱草原生态系统植物多样性和初级生产力的限制因素。近年来由于人为干扰和气候干旱，特别是过度放牧，导致半干旱地区草原严重退化，草地生产利用和生态服务功能日益衰减，自然灾害频繁发生。草原退化演替主要表现为不同植物种的消长和替代过程。在内蒙古草原，过度放牧导致多年生根茎禾草和丛生禾草被豆科灌木或具根茎和不定根的杂类草替代，丰富的多年生杂类草被一、二年生植物替代。目前，对于上述功能群之间的替代机制，以及草原退化的机理尚不十分清楚。本研究在中国科学院内蒙古草原生态系统定位研究站选取了79年围封的大针茅(Stipa grandis)样地、其外围的自由放牧样地及中德合作项目“ Matter Fluxes in grassland of Inner Mongolia as influenced by stocking rate (MAGIM) ”的传统平地放牧处理小区为研究对象，从植物-水分关系的角度，利用氢和碳稳定性同位素技术，研究主要植物种和功能群水分来源和水分利用效率对放牧的响应，进而揭示放牧干扰下草原退化的机理。本研究取得了如下主要研究结果和结论： 1. 在干旱年份，雨水仅湿润了大针茅草原0-20cm的表层土壤。土壤中保存的冬季降水贡献了植物可利用水分的30%，而在正常年份只有10%。干旱季节羊草(Leymus chinensis)和大针茅能够利用土壤60cm以下保存的多年降水，而糙隐子草(Cleistogenes squarrosa)和冰草(Agropyron cristatum)只能利用生长季的雨水。长期过度放牧使冰草和糙隐子草的相对生物量和相对多度均显著增加，而羊草的相对生物量和相对多度显著降低。这种由放牧引起的群落结构与组成的改变，降低了植被对冬季降水的利用，加剧了干旱对生态系统的影响。 2. 依据羊草草原群落植物的生活型和光合类型划分为：C4禾草、C4杂类草、C4灌木、C3禾草、C3杂类草、C3鳞茎类植物和C3灌木七个功能群，各功能群间的水分利用效率差异显著。不同功能群植物在对土壤水分的利用上存在着明显的生态位分离。C4禾草和C3鳞茎类植物主要利用表层水分，而C4灌木则利用深层土壤水分，C3其它功能群介于二者之间。在无放牧和低载畜率下，各功能群植物均主要吸收浅层土壤水分，功能群间竞争相对强烈。在较高载畜率下，C3禾草转为利用深层土壤水分，功能群间出现水分生态位的分离，部分地缓解了植物对土壤表层水分的竞争。沿着载畜率梯度，群落对浅层土壤水分的利用呈现出先增加，尔后下降的趋势。 3. 在放牧干扰下，羊草草原群落中主要植物种稳定性碳同位素值的变化范围为-13.100/00~-27.590/00。不同功能群植物间的水分利用效率有着显著的差异：C4禾草> C4杂类草> C4灌木> C3禾草、C3杂类草> C3鳞茎类植物> C3灌木。C3鳞茎类植物和C4杂类草的水分利用效率随载畜率增加而降低。C3和C4禾草的水分利用效率随载畜率的增加表现为先增加，尔后下降的趋势。群落水平的水分利用效率主要由占生物量90%的禾草的水分利用效率决定。随着载畜率增加，群落水分利用效率有逐渐降低的趋势。

No changes in seedling recruitment when terrestrial mammals are excluded in a partially defaunated Atlantic rainforest

One of the most intriguing questions in ecology is how to identify which and how many species will be able to inhabit human-modified landscapes. Large-bodied mammals structure plant communities by trampling, herbivory, seed dispersal and predation, and their local extinction may have pervasive consequences in plant communities due to the breakdown of key interactions. Although much attention has been given to understanding the effects of defaunation on plant communities, information on the potential impacts on plant functional groups (seed dispersal, seed size and seedling leaves defense) inhabiting continuous forests after defaunation is scarce. We conducted mammal surveys (line transects and camera trapping) to determine the defaunation status of a continuous Atlantic forest in Brazil. Then, we evaluated the effects of defaunation on seedling diversity, richness and abundance of functional groups using 15 plot-pairs (each pair with one open and one exclusion plot) monitored over 36. months. We found that the studied area is partially defaunated because it exhibits high abundance of primates, while terrestrial mammals, such as large rodents and ungulates, are rare. We found no significant changes in either seedling richness and diversity or in the seedling composition of plant functional groups in response to mammal exclosure. Seedling mortality and recruitment were similar between plot types. Our findings suggest that at semi-defaunated areas, where arboreal species are still present, terrestrial mammals have low impacts on the plant community reassembly. © 2013 Elsevier Ltd.

Patch dynamics in grazed subtropical native pastures in south-east Queensland

Patch formation is common in grazed grasslands but the mechanisms involved in the formation and maintenance of patches are not clear. To increase our knowledge on this subject we examined possible reasons for patch formation and the influence of management on changes between patch states in three experiments in native pasture communities in the Crows Nest district, south-east Queensland. In these communities, small-scale patches (tall grassland (dominated by large and medium tussock grasses), short swards (dominated by short tussock grasses and sedges), and lawns (dominated by stoloniferous and/or rhizomatous grasses)) are readily apparent. We hypothesized that the formation of short sward and lawn patches in areas of tall grassland was due to combinations of grazing and soil fertility effects. This was tested in Experiment 1 by applying a factorial combination of defoliation, nutrient application and transplants of short tussock and stoloniferous species to a uniform area of tall grassland. Total species density declined during the experiment, was lower with high nutrient applications, but was not affected by defoliation. There were significant changes in abundance of species that provided support for our hypotheses. With light defoliation and low nutrients, the tall grassland remained dominated by large tussock grasses and contained considerable amounts of forbs. With heavy defoliation, the pastures were dominated by medium tussock grasses and there were significant decreases in forbs and increases in sedges (mainly with low nutrients) and stoloniferous grasses (mainly with high nutrients). Total germinable seed densities and those of most species groups were significantly lower in the heavy defoliation than the light defoliation plots. Total soil seed numbers were not affected by nutrient application but there were fewer seeds of the erect forbs and more sedge seeds in plots with high nutrients. The use of resting from grazing and fire to manage transitions between patches was tested. In Experiment 2, changes in species density and abundance were measured for 5 years in the three patch types with and without grazing. Experiment 3 examined the effects of fire, grazing and resting on short sward patches over 4 years. In Experiment 2, total species density was lower in lawn than short sward or tall grassland patches, and there were more species of erect forbs than other plant groups in all patch types. The lawn patches were originally dominated by Cynodon spp. This dominance continued with grazing but in ungrazed patches the abundance of Cynodon spp. declined and that of forbs increased. In the short sward patches, dominance of short tussock grasses continued with grazing but in ungrazed plots their abundance declined while that of large tussock grasses increased. The tall grassland patches remained dominated by large and medium tussock species. In Experiment 3, fire had no effect on species abundance. On the grazed plots the short tussock grasses remained dominant but where the plots were rested from grazing the small tussock grasses declined and the large tussock grasses increased in abundance. The slow and relatively small changes in these experiments over 4 or 5 years showed how stable the composition of these pastures is, and that rapid changes between patch types are unlikely.

Influence of Vegetation Removal and Altering Water Levels on CO2 Flux Rates of a Northern Bog

Boreal peatlands contain approximately one third of the global soil carbon and are considered net sinks of atmospheric CO2. Water level position is one of the main regulators of CO2 fluxes in northern peatlands because it controls both the thickness of the aerobic layer in peat and plant communities. However, little is known about the role of different plant functional groups and their possible interaction with changing water level in boreal peatlands with regard to CO2 cycling. Climate change may also accelerate changes in hydrological conditions, changing both aerobic conditions and plant communities. To help answer these questions, this study was conducted at a mesocosm facility in Northern Michigan where the aim was to experimentally study the effects of water levels, plant functional groups (sedges, shrubs and mosses) and the possible interaction of these on the CO2 cycle of a boreal peatland ecosystem. The results indicate that Ericaceous shrubs are important in the boreal peatland CO2 cycle. The removal of these plants decreased ecosystem respiration, gross ecosystem production and net ecosystem exchange rates, whereas removing sedges did not show any significant differences in the flux rates. The water level did not significantly affect the flux rates. The amount of aboveground sedge biomass was higher in the low water level sedge treatment plots compared to the high water level sedge plots, possibly because the lowered water level and the removal of Ericaceae released nutrients for sedges to use up.

Plant species and functional group effects on abiotic and microbial soil properties and plant-soil feedback responses in two grasslands

1 Plant species differ in their capacity to influence soil organic matter, soil nutrient availability and the composition of soil microbial communities. Their influences on soil properties result in net positive or negative feedback effects, which influence plant performance and plant community composition. 2 For two grassland systems, one on a sandy soil in the Netherlands and one on a chalk soil in the United Kingdom, we investigated how individual plant species grown in monocultures changed abiotic and biotic soil conditions. Then, we determined feedback effects of these soils to plants of the same or different species. Feedback effects were analysed at the level of plant species and plant taxonomic groups (grasses vs. forbs). 3 In the sandy soils, plant species differed in their effects on soil chemical properties, in particular potassium levels, but PLFA (phospholipid fatty acid) signatures of the soil microbial community did not differ between plant species. The effects of soil chemical properties were even greater when grasses and forbs were compared, especially because potassium levels were lower in grass monocultures. 4 In the chalk soil, there were no effects of plant species on soil chemical properties, but PLFA profiles differed significantly between soils from different monocultures. PLFA profiles differed between species, rather than between grasses and forbs. 5 In the feedback experiment, all plant species in sandy soils grew less vigorously in soils conditioned by grasses than in soils conditioned by forbs. These effects correlated significantly with soil chemical properties. None of the seven plant species showed significant differences between performance in soil conditioned by the same vs. other plant species. 6 In the chalk soil, Sanguisorba minor and in particular Briza media performed best in soil collected from conspecifics, while Bromus erectus performed best in soil from heterospecifics. There was no distinctive pattern between soils collected from forb and grass monocultures, and plant performance could not be related to soil chemical properties or PLFA signatures. 7 Our study shows that mechanisms of plant-soil feedback can depend on plant species, plant taxonomic (or functional) groups and site-specific differences in abiotic and biotic soil properties. Understanding how plant species can influence their rhizosphere, and how other plant species respond to these changes, will greatly enhance our understanding of the functioning and stability of ecosystems.

Management of plant invasions mediated by frugivore interactions

1. Some of the most damaging invasive plants are dispersed by frugivores and this is an area of emerging importance in weed management. It highlights the need for practical information on how frugivores affect weed population dynamics and spread, how frugivore populations are affected by weeds and what management recommendations are available. 2. Fruit traits influence frugivore choice. Fruit size, the presence of an inedible peel, defensive chemistry, crop size and phenology may all be useful traits for consideration in screening and eradication programmes. By considering the effect of these traits on the probability, quality and quantity of seed dispersal, it may be possible to rank invasive species by their desirability to frugivores. Fruit traits can also be manipulated with biocontrol agents. 3. Functional groups of frugivores can be assembled according to broad species groupings, and further refined according to size, gape size, pre- and post-ingestion processing techniques and movement patterns, to predict dispersal and establishment patterns for plant introductions. 4. Landscape fragmentation can increase frugivore dispersal of invasives, as many invasive plants and dispersers readily use disturbed matrix environments and fragment edges. Dispersal to particular landscape features, such as perches and edges, can be manipulated to function as seed sinks if control measures are concentrated in these areas. 5. Where invasive plants comprise part of the diet of native frugivores, there may be a conservation conflict between control of the invasive and maintaining populations of the native frugivore, especially where other threats such as habitat destruction have reduced populations of native fruit species. 6. Synthesis and applications. Development of functional groups of frugivore-dispersed invasive plants and dispersers will enable us to develop predictions for novel dispersal interactions at both population and community scales. Increasingly sophisticated mechanistic seed dispersal models combined with spatially explicit simulations show much promise for providing weed managers with the information they need to develop strategies for surveying, eradicating and managing plant invasions. Possible conservation conflicts mean that understanding the nature of the invasive plant-frugivore interaction is essential for determining appropriate management.

Changes in individual plant traits and biomass allocation in alpine meadow with elevation variation on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau

Plant traits and individual plant biomass allocation of 57 perennial herbaceous species, belonging to three common functional groups (forbs, grasses and sedges) at subalpine (3700 m ASL), alpine (4300 m ASL) and subnival (>= 5000 m ASL) sites were examined to test the hypothesis that at high altitudes, plants reduce the proportion of aboveground parts and allocate more biomass to belowground parts, especially storage organs, as altitude increases, so as to geminate and resist environmental stress. However, results indicate that some divergence in biomass allocation exists among organs. With increasing altitude, the mean fractions of total biomass allocated to aboveground parts decreased. The mean fractions of total biomass allocation to storage organs at the subalpine site (7%+/- 2% S.E.) were distinct from those at the alpine (23%+/- 6%) and subnival (21%+/- 6%) sites, while the proportions of green leaves at all altitudes remained almost constant. At 4300 m and 5000 m, the mean fractions of flower stems decreased by 45% and 41%, respectively, while fine roots increased by 86% and 102%, respectively. Specific leaf areas and leaf areas of forbs and grasses deceased with rising elevation, while sedges showed opposite trends. For all three functional groups, leaf area ratio and leaf area root mass ratio decreased, while fine root biomass increased at higher altitudes. Biomass allocation patterns of alpine plants were characterized by a reduction in aboveground reproductive organs and enlargement of fine roots, while the proportion of leaves remained stable. It was beneficial for high altitude plants to compensate carbon gain and nutrient uptake under low temperature and limited nutrients by stabilizing biomass investment to photosynthetic structures and increasing the absorption surface area of fine roots. In contrast to forbs and grasses that had high mycorrhizal infection, sedges had higher single leaf area and more root fraction, especially fine roots.

Phyto-activity of biocides used to manipulate herbivory: tests of three pesticides on fourteen plant species

1. We tested three pesticides used for field manipulations of herbivory for direct phytoactive effects on the germination and growth of 14 herbaceous plant species selected to provide a range of life-history strategies and functional groups. 2. We report three companion experiments: (A) Two insecticides, chlorpyrifos (granular soil insecticide) and dimethoate (foliar spray), were applied in fully-factorial combination to pot-germinated individuals of 12 species. (B) The same fully-factorial design was used to test for direct effects on the germination of four herbaceous legumes. (C) The molluscicide, metaldehyde, was tested for direct effects on the germination and growth of six plant species. 3. The insecticides had few significant effects on growth and germination. Dimethoate acted only on growth stimulating Anisantha sterilis, Sonchus asper and Stellaria graminea. In contrast, chlorpyrifos acted on germination increasing the germination of Trifolium dubium and Trifolium pratense. There was also a significant interactive effect of chlorpyrifos and dimethoate on the germination of T pratense. However, all. effects were relatively small in magnitude and explanatory power. The molluscicide had no significant effect on plant germination or growth. 4. The small number and size of direct effects of the pesticides on plant performance is encouraging for the use of these pesticides in manipulative experiments on herbivory, especially for the molluscicide. However, a smatt number of direct (positive) effects of the insecticides on some plant species need to be taken into account when interpreting field manipulations of herbivory with these compounds, and emphasises the importance of conducting tests for direct phyto-active effects. (C) 2004 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.

TRY: a global database of plant traits

Plant traits – the morphological, anatomical, physiological, biochemical and phenological characteristics of plants and their organs – determine how primary producers respond to environmental factors, affect other trophic levels, influence ecosystem processes and services and provide a link from species richness to ecosystem functional diversity. Trait data thus represent the raw material for a wide range of research from evolutionary biology, community and functional ecology to biogeography. Here we present the global database initiative named TRY, which has united a wide range of the plant trait research community worldwide and gained an unprecedented buy-in of trait data: so far 93 trait databases have been contributed. The data repository currently contains almost three million trait entries for 69 000 out of the world's 300 000 plant species, with a focus on 52 groups of traits characterizing the vegetative and regeneration stages of the plant life cycle, including growth, dispersal, establishment and persistence. A first data analysis shows that most plant traits are approximately log-normally distributed, with widely differing ranges of variation across traits. Most trait variation is between species (interspecific), but significant intraspecific variation is also documented, up to 40% of the overall variation. Plant functional types (PFTs), as commonly used in vegetation models, capture a substantial fraction of the observed variation – but for several traits most variation occurs within PFTs, up to 75% of the overall variation. In the context of vegetation models these traits would better be represented by state variables rather than fixed parameter values. The improved availability of plant trait data in the unified global database is expected to support a paradigm shift from species to trait-based ecology, offer new opportunities for synthetic plant trait research and enable a more realistic and empirically grounded representation of terrestrial vegetation in Earth system models.

Transcriptomic analysis of Enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli O157:H7 in response to plant extracts

Enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC) are a group of food and contact-borne pathogens responsible for haemorrhagic colitis. The bacteria can be transmitted by contaminated meat, but importantly, also by plants. The bacteria can use plants as an alternative host, where they associate with both the leaves and the roots. Colonisation in the rhizosphere of plants is thought to be the main habitat for colonisation. Four different plant species, commonly associated with EHEC outbreaks, were infected with EHEC O157:H7 isolates Sakai and TUV 93-0 over ten days to assess the colonisation potential of the bacteria in both the phyllosphere and rhizosphere of plants. The rhizosphere was found to sustain a higher population level of bacteria over time in comparison to the phyllosphere, yet both strains were unable to utilize root exudates for growth. Global gene expression changes of EHEC O157:H7 strain Sakai were measured in response to plant extracts such as leaf lysates, root exudates and leaf cell wall polysaccharides from spinach cultivar Amazon and lettuce cultivar Salinas. Microarrays analysis showed a significant change in expression of 17 % of genes on exposure to leaf lysates of spinach. A more specific response was seen to spinach leaf cell wall polysaccharides with only a 1.5 % change. In contrast, when exposed to lettuce leaf cell wall polysaccharides a higher change of 4.8 % was seen. Genes that were differentially expressed belonged to multiple functional groups, including metabolism, indicating the utilization of plant-specific polysaccharides. Several areas of further investigation have been determined from this project, including the importance of culturing bacterial strains at a relevant temperature, the proposed lack of the type III secretion system in plant colonization by EHEC O157:H7 and the utilization of plant components for growth and persistence in the plant environment.

Diversity of functional traits of fleshy fruits in a species-rich Atlantic rain forest

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)