Management Guidelines for New Warm-Season Grasses in Australia

After more than 30 years in which ‘Tifgreen’ and ‘Tifdwarf’ were the only greens-quality varieties available, the choice for golf courses and bowls clubs in northern Australia has been expanded to include six new Cynodon hybrids [Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers x Cynodon transvaalensis Burtt-Davy]. Five of these – ‘Champion Dwarf’ (Texas), ‘MS-Supreme’ (Mississippi), FloraDwarf™ (Florida), ‘TifEagle’ (Georgia), MiniVerde™ (Arizona) - are from US breeding programs, while the sixth, ‘TL2’ (marketed as Novotek™) was selected in north Queensland. The finer, denser and lower growing habit of the “ultradwarf” cultivars allows very low mowing heights (e.g. 2.5 mm) to be imposed, resulting in denser and smoother putting and bowls surfaces. In addition to the Cynodon hybrids, four new greens quality seashore paspalum (Paspalum vaginatum O. Swartz) cultivars including ‘Sea Isle 2000’, Sea Isle Supreme™, Velvetene™ and Sea Dwarf™ (where tolerance of salty water is required) expands the range of choices for greens in difficult environments. The project was developed to determine (a) the appropriate choice of cultivar for different environments and budgets, and (b) best management practices for the new cultivars which differ from the Cynodon hybrid industry standards ‘Tifgreen’ and ‘Tifdwarf’. Management practices, particularly fertilising, mowing heights and frequency, and thatch control were investigated to determine optimum management inputs and provide high quality playing surfaces with the new grasses. To enable effective trialling of these new and old cultivars it was essential to have a number of regional sites participating in the study. Drought and financial hardship of many clubs presented an initial setback with numerous clubs wanting to be involved in the study but were unable to commit due to their financial position at the time. The study was fortunate to have seven regional sites from Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria and South Australia volunteer to be involved in the study which would add to the results being collected at the centralised test facility being constructed at DEEDI’s Redlands Research Station. The major research findings acquired from the eight trial sites included: • All of the new second generation “ultradwarf” couchgrasses tend to produce a large amount of thatch with MiniVerde™ being the greatest thatch producer, particularly compared to ‘Tifdwarf’ and ‘Tifgreen’. The maintenance of the new Cynodon hybrids will require a program of regular dethatching/grooming as well as regular light dustings of sand. Thatch prevention should begin 3 to 4 weeks after planting a new “ultradwarf” couchgrass green, with an emphasis on prevention rather than control. • The “ultradwarfs” produced faster green speeds than the current industry standards ‘Tifgreen’ and ‘Tifdwarf’. However, all Cynodon hybrids were considerably faster than the seashore paspalums (e.g. comparable to the speed diference of Bentgrass and couchgrass) under trial conditions. Green speed was fastest being cut at 3.5 mm and rolled (compared to 3.5 mm cut, no roll and 2.7 mm cut, no roll). • All trial sites reported the occurrence of disease in the Cynodon hybrids with the main incidence of disease occurring during the dormancy period (autumn and winter). The main disease issue reported was “patch diseases” which includes both Gaumannomyces and Rhizoctonia species. There was differences in the severity of the disease between cultivars, however, the severity of the disease was not consistent between cultivars and is largely attributed to an environment (location) effect. In terms of managing the occurrence of disease, the incidence of disease is less severe where there is a higher fertility rate (about 3 kgN/100m2/year) or a preventitatve fungicide program is adopted. • Cynodon hybrid and seashore paspalum cultivars maintained an acceptable to ideal surface being cut between 2.7 mm and 5.0 mm. “Ultradwarf” cultivars can tolerate mowing heights as low as 2.5 mm for short periods but places the plant under high levels of stress. Greens being maintained at a continually lower cutting height (e.g. 2.7 mm) of both species is achievable, but would need to be cut daily for best results. Seashore paspalums performed best when cut at a height of between 2.7 mm and 3.0 mm. If a lower cutting height is adopted, regular and repeated mowings are required to reduce scalping and produce a smooth surface. • At this point in time the optimum rate of nitrogen (N) for the Cynodon hybrids is 3 kg/100m2/year and while the seashore paspalums is 2 to 3 kg/100m2/year. • Dormancy occurred for all Cynodon and seashore paspalum culitvars from north in Brisbane (QLD) to south in Mornington Peninsula (VIC) and west to Novar Gardens (SA). Cynodon and Paspalum growth in both Victoria and South Australia was less favourable as a result of the cooler climates. • After combining the data collected from all eight sites, the results indicated that there can be variation (e.g. turfgrass quality, colour, disease resistance, performace) depending on the site and climatic conditions. Such evidence highlights the need to undertake genotype by environment (G x E) studies on new and old cultivars prior to conversion or establishment. • For a club looking to select either a Cynodon hybrid or seashore paspalum cultivar for use at their club they need to: - Review the research data. - Look at trial plots. - Inspect greens in play that have the new grasses. - Select 2 to 3 cultivars that are considered to be the better types. - Establish them in large (large enough to putt on) plots/nursery/practice putter. Ideally the area should be subjected to wear. - Maintain them exactly as they would be on the golf course/lawn bowls green. This is a critical aspect. Regular mowing, fertilising etc. is essential. - Assess them over at least 2 to 3 years. - Make a selection and establish it in a playing green so that it is subjected to typical wear.

Warm-season greens grass trial - Environmental and management guidelines suited for new and old cultivars

The Horticulture Australia funded project, Management Guidelines for Warm-Season Grasses in Australia (TU05001), has allowed a detailed greens grass study to take place and enabled researchers and superintendents to work together to collect meaningful data on a range of Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. x Cynodon transvaalensis Burtt-Davy (Cynodon hybrid) and Paspalum vaginatum O. Swartz (seashore paspalum) cultivars suitable for golf or lawn bowls use. The end result provides superintendents and greenkeepers with additional knowledge to accompany their skills in managing or upgrading their greens to produce a denser, smoother and faster putting or bowls surface. However, neither turfgrass selection nor finely tuned management program will overcome unrealistic expectations (especially in relation to usage), poor growing environments, or limitations due to improper construction techniques.

Establishment and management of salt-tolerant amenity grasses to reduce urban salinity effect

This project built upon the successful outcomes of a previous project (TU02005) by adding to the database of salt tolerance among warm season turfgrass cultivars, through further hydroponic screening trials. Hydroponic screening trials focussed on new cultivars or cultivars that were not possible to cover in the time available under TU02005, including: 11 new cultivars of Paspalum vaginatum; 13 cultivars of Cynodon dactylon; six cultivars of Stenotaphrum secundatum; one accession of Cynodon transvaalensis; 12 Cynodon dactylon x transvaalensis hybrids; two cultivars of Sporobolus virginicus; five cultivars of Zoysia japonica; one cultivar of Z. macrantha, one common form of Z. tenuifolia and one Z. japonica x tenuifolia hybrid. The relative salinity tolerance of different turfgrasses is quantified in terms of their growth response to increasing levels of salinity, often defined by the salt level that equates to a 50% reduction in shoot yield, or alternatively the threshold salinity. The most salt tolerant species in these trials were Sporobolus virginicus and Paspalum vaginatum, consistent with the findings from TU02005 (Loch, Poulter et al. 2006). Cynodon dactylon showed the largest range in threshold values with some cultivars highly sensitive to salt, while others were tolerant to levels approaching that of the more halophytic grasses. Coupled with the observational and anecdotal evidence of high drought tolerance, this species and other intermediately tolerant species provide options for site specific situations in which soil salinity is coupled with additional challenges such as shade and high traffic conditions. By recognising the fact that a salt tolerant grass is not the complete solution to salinity problems, this project has been able to further investigate sustainable long-term establishment and management practices that maximise the ability of the selected grass to survive and grow under a particular set of salinity and usage parameters. Salt-tolerant turf grasses with potential for special use situations were trialled under field conditions at three sites within the Gold Coast City Council, while three sites, established under TU02005 within the Redland City Council boundaries were monitored for continued grass survival. Several randomised block experiments within Gold Coast City were established to compare the health and longevity of seashore paspalum (Paspalum vaginatum), Manila grass (Zoysia matrella), as well as the more tolerant cultivars of other species like buffalo grass (Stenotaphrum secundatum) and green couch (Cynodon dactylon). Whilst scientific results were difficult to achieve in the field situation, where conditions cannot be controlled, these trials provided valuable observational evidence of the likely survival of these species. Alternatives to laying full sod such as sprigging were investigated, and were found to be more appropriate for areas of low traffic as the establishment time is greater. Trials under controlled and protected conditions successfully achieved a full cover of Paspalum vaginatum from sprigs in a 10 week time frame. Salt affected sites are often associated with poor soil structure. Part of the research investigated techniques for the alleviation of soil compaction frequently found on saline sites. Various methods of soil de-compaction were investigated on highly compacted heavy clay soil in Redlands City. It was found that the heavy duplex soil of marine clay sediments required the most aggressive of treatments in order to achieve limited short-term effects. Interestingly, a well constructed sports field showed a far greater and longer term response to de-compaction operations, highlighting the importance of appropriate construction in the successful establishment and management of turfgrasses on salt affected sites. Fertiliser trials in this project determined plant demand for nitrogen (N) to species level. This work produced data that can be used as a guide when fertilising, in order to produce optimal growth and quality in the major turf grass species used in public parkland. An experiment commenced during TU02005 and monitored further in this project, investigated six representative warm-season turfgrasses to determine the optimum maintenance requirements for fertiliser N in south-east Queensland. In doing so, we recognised that optimum level is also related to use and intensity of use, with high profile well-used parks requiring higher maintenance N than low profile parks where maintaining botanical composition at a lower level of turf quality might be acceptable. Kikuyu (Pennisetum clandestinum) seemed to require the greatest N input (300-400 kg N/ha/year), followed by the green couch (Cynodon dactylon) cultivars ‘Wintergreen’ and ‘FLoraTeX’ requiring approximately 300 kg N/ha/year for optimal condition and growth. ‘Sir Walter’ (Stenotaphrum secundatum) and ‘Sea Isle 1’ (Paspalum vaginatum) had a moderate requirement of approximately 200 kg/ha/year. ‘Aussiblue’ (Digitaria didactyla)maintained optimal growth and quality at 100-200 kg N/ha/year. A set of guidelines has been prepared to provide various options from the construction and establishment of new grounds, through to the remediation of existing parklands by supporting the growth of endemic grasses. They describe a best management process through which salt affected sites should be assessed, remediated and managed. These guidelines, or Best Management Practices, will be readily available to councils. Previously, some high salinity sites have been turfed several times over a number of years (and Council budgets) for a 100% failure record. By eliminating this budgetary waste through targeted workable solutions, local authorities will be more amenable to investing appropriate amounts into these areas. In some cases, this will lead to cost savings as well as resulting in better quality turf. In all cases, however, improved turf quality will be of benefit to ratepayers, directly through increased local use of open space in parks and sportsfields and indirectly by attracting tourists and other visitors to the region bringing associated economic benefits. At the same time, environmental degradation and erosion of soil in bare areas will be greatly reduced.

Comparison of compost and a sandy loam as turf underlay materials on salt-affected parkland

Turfgrasses range from extremely salt sensitive to highly salt tolerant. However, the selection of a salt tolerant turf is not a 'silver bullet' solution to successful turf growth on salt-affected parklands. Interactions between factors such as cultivar, construction practices, establishment, and maintenance can be complex and should not be considered in isolation of one another. Taking this holistic approach, a study investigating cultivar evaluation for salt-affected sites also included a comparison of topsoil materials as turf underlay, as well as pre-treatment of the sod. The turf species and cultivars used in the study were: Cynodon dactylon, cultivar 'Oz Tuff (I) '; Paspalum vaginatum, cultivars 'Sea Isle 1 (I) ' and 'Velvetene (I) '; Zoysia matrella cultivar 'A-1 (I) '; and Zoysia japonica, cultivar 'Empire (I) '. The two underlay materials were compost (100%) or a sandy clay topsoil each applied above a coastal sand profile to a depth of 10 cm. Rooting depth or root dry weight did not significantly differ among turf cultivars. Compost profile treatment had significantly greater root mass than the topsoil among all turf cultivars. This higher root production was reflected by improved quality of all turf at the final evaluation. Turfgrass grown on compost had a higher normalised difference vegetation index (NDVI), regardless of whether full sod or bare-rooted turfgrass was used. The use of a quality underlay was paramount to the successful growth of the turf cultivars investigated. While each cultivar had superior performance in sub-optimal conditions, the key to success was the selection of the right species and cultivar for each situation combined with proper establishment and maintenance of each turf grass.

Efecto de labranzas y métodos de control de malezas sobre la dinámica de las malezas y el crecimiento y rendimiento del frijol común (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) postrera, 1994

Durante la postrera de 1994, se estableció un experimento de campo en la finca experimental. La Compañía, localizada en San Marcos. Carazo, con el propósito de evaluar la influencia de tres sistemas de labranza y tres métodos de control de malezas, sobre la dinámica de las malezas, y el crecimiento y rendimiento del cultivo de frijol (Phaseolus vulgaris L.). Los tratamientos en estudio fueron arreglados en Bloques Completos al Azar, en un diseño de parcela dividida, con cuatro repeticiones. Los factores en estudio fueron A: labranza cero, labranza mínima y labranza convencional. B: control de malezas: pre-emergente + post-emergente, pre-emergente + Chapia y pre-emergente más cobertura muerta de maíz (Zea mays L.). Los resultados indican que las especies de malezas más dominantes fueron plantas de la familia cyperaceae sobresaliendo Cyperus rotundus L., familia poaceae: Digitaria sanguinalis (L) Scop., Paspalum sp.. Sorghum halepense L. En la clase dicotiledónea se encuentran Melanina aspera (Jacquin) L.C. de la familia Asteraceae, Richardia scabra L de la familia Rubiaceae y Sida acuta Burm. R. de la familia Malvaceae. Las especies desalas anteriormente fueron las más abundantes y estuvieron presentes en la diversidad. Tanto en la abundancia y dominancia de las malezas (cobertura y peso seco) los mejores resultados se presentaron en el sistema de labranza convencional. En los controles el mejor resultado se presentó usando pre-emergente más post-emergente. De manera general se puede afirmar que no existieron diferencias significativas en los tres sistemas de labranza en cuanto a las variables de rendimiento. En cuanto al mayor número de vainas por planta, los mejores resultados se presentaron en labranza mínima, seguido de labranza convencional y por último labranza cero. De acuerdo al número de plantas por hectárea, rendimiento y peso de cien granos los mejores resultados estuvieron, de mayor a menor, en los sistemas de labranza cero mínima y convencional. Con respecto a los controles evaluados no se presentaron diferencias estadísticas significativas en cuanto a la altura de planta y altura de inserción a la primera vaina. De acuerdo al número de vainas por planta y rendimiento, los mejores resultados se presentaron en el control pre-emergente más post-emergente, seguido de pre-emergente más chapia y pre-emergente más cobertura muerta de maíz. Las variables número de granos por vaina, peso de paja y el peso de cien granos presentaron mejor comportamiento en el control pre-emergente más chapia seguido de pre-emergente más cobertura muerta de maíz. El sistema de labranza con mejor rentabilidad resultó ser el sistema de labranza cero, dado que éste ofrece mayores beneficios netos con menores costos variables, además se obtuvieron los mejores rendimientos, a pesar que fue el que presentó la mayor abundancia de malezas.

Diagnóstico fitosanitario de la producción de frijol común (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) en el Pacífico Sur de Nicaragua, época de postrera 1995-1996

Este trabajo consistió en un diagnóstico fitosanitario que se llevó a cabo durante la época de postrera (1995 1996), en la Región Pacífico sur de Nicaragua que comprende los departamentos de Rivas, Granada, Masaya y Carazo. El objetivo del trabajo fue conocer la problemática fitosanitaria del frijol en la zona. Para ello se seleccionaron productores de la zona, los cuales constituyeron la muestra de estudio. Los resultados indican que las principales plagas son Femitia tabaci (Gennadius) (Homóptera: Aleyrodidae) y Vaginutus plebema Fisher, (Gastropoda). Las medidas de control para el caso de la Femitia tabaci (Gennadius) fue básicamente cultural Mustia hilachosa Thanatephorus cucumeris (Frank) Donk pudo haber sido la principal causa de bajos rendimientos en la zona presentándose en los lotes de frijol común de forma virulenta. También se presentó la mancha angular (Isariopsis griseola (Sacc) Ferr), la antracnosis (Colletotribum Indemuthimun Sacc Magnus) y la virosis. Para el caso de las malezas, las de mayor presencia en la zona fueron: Claunmelins dittiusa, Burn, f. (siempre viva), Cyperus spp. (coyolillo), Baltumara recta L. (me caso no me caso), Cynadan dactylon (L.) Pers (zacate gallina), Sida acuta Burn F. (escoba lisa), Ixofhonus unisetus K. B. Presl. (zacate dulce) y Paspalum conjugatum (pasto horqueta). En análisis económico del estudio en la zona indica que la producción en el ciclo estudiado no fue rentable globalmente hablando, ya que el 62 por ciento de los productores no recuperaron lo invertido en el ciclo productivo. Se pudo conocer por medio del estudio el poco apoyo técnico y económico por parte de los organismos gubernamentales y la banca estatal que tienen los productores de la zona, pudiendo esto haber sido un factor que incidiera en aspectos tales como la reducción de las áreas establecidas y altos costos de producción.

Determinación de la productividad de cuatro especies gramíneas forrajeras en condiciones de pastoreo para la zona seca de Juigalpa, Chontales

El presente trabajo se realizó en dos fincas ubicadas en la comarca "Las Lajitas" y "San Patricio" a 6 y 30 Km de la ciudad de Juigalpa sobre la carretera a Managua, Departamento de Chontales. El trabajo consistió en un estudio que tuvo como objetivo principal evaluar el comportamiento de adaptación y productividad de cuatro especies gramíneas. forrajeras, dos de reciente introducción y dos naturalizadas a tres edades de cortes (25, 30 y 35 días) en condiciones de pastoreo para la zona seca de Juigalpa, Chontales, bajo condiciones de manejo local (sin riego, ni fertilización) de Diciembre de 1997 a Abril de 1998. Los parámetros a medir en el estudio fueron: 1.- La producción de materia verde y materia seca en toneladas/Manzanas. 2.- Altura de las plantas en cm. 3.- El porcentaje de cobertura foliar. 4.- Los costos de establecimiento, manejo y producción de 0 a 5 años de las cuatro especies forrajeras mediante diagnóstico a productores y técnicos de la zona. Para la realización de este ensayo no se realizó propiamente un diseño estadístico sino que se situaron en las parcelas tres intervalos de corte con tres réplicas para cada una promediando los resultados en los cinco cortes realizados durante el estudio. Brachiaria brizantha c.v. Marandú fue la especie que mejor se comportó en la producción de materia verde, materia seca, altura de las plantas en cm y porcentaje de cobertura foliar, seguido de Paspalum virgatum, Andropogon gayanus e Hyparrhenia rufa para cada uno de los tres intervalos de corte. Paspalum virgatum presentó durante el estudio la mejor tasa de disminución del rendimiento en porcentajes después de haber realizado el primer corte en los intervalos correspondientes, seguido de Brachiaria brizantha, Andropogon gayanus e Hyparrhenia rufa. Así mismo, Brachiaria brizantha al realizarse una proyección del establecimiento, manejo y producción de la especie evaluadas de 0 a 5 años se consultó que obtuvo mejores utilidades en dólares USA I Mz / Año con respecto a las demás especies. Estas diferencias se manifiestan claramente porque Brachiaria brizantha es un pasto que soporta una mayor carga animal dando así mayor producción de carne, leche y valor de las semil1as gámicas en Kg.

The abiotic ecology of breeding ground of Palaemonid prawns in the Ilaje Estuary, Ondo State, Nigeria

In situ ecological assessment of the breeding grounds of palaemonid prawns was conducted in some selected locations around Ondo state coastal area between the months of April and September. Data obtained were subjected to both descriptive and inferential statistics. Three species of Palaemonid prawns were identified in four different locations within the study area with relative abundance ratio of 4:3:1. Macrobrachium macrobrachion, Nematopalaemon hastatus and Palaemon maculatus respectively. Sex ratio of 1 male to 5 females for M. macrobrachion, and 1 male to 2 females for N. hastatus and P. maculatus were observed with result showing significant relationships (P < 0.05) in distribution patterns across collection sites. Population distribution within the water column showed that palaemons are sub-lithoral prawns inhabiting maximum mean depth of 0.67m ± 0.025. Surface macro-phytes such as Eichhornia crassipies, Paspalum vaginatum, and Pistia stratiotes are common providing hiding spots for the prawn at the breeding ground. The mean soil pH across the sites stands at 6.67± 0.399 with the soil textural class that range from silty-loam to silty-clay. Also, the water quality parameters of study areas suggest that captive culture and rearing of Palaemons may be feasible outside the breeding areas.

Use of microbial community to evaluate performance of a wetland system in treating Pb/Zn mine drainage

The performance of a wetland system in treating lead (Pb)/zinc (Zn) mine drainage was evaluated by using the polyurethane foam unit (PFU) microbial community (method), which has been adopted by China as a standardized procedure for monitoring water quality. The wetland system consisted of four cells with three dominant plants: Typha latifolia, Phragmites australis and Paspalum distichum. Physicochemical characteristics [pH, EC, content of total suspended solid (TSS) and metals (Pb, Zn, Cd, and Cu)] and PFU microbial community in water samples had been investigated from seven sampling sites. The results indicated that the concentrations of Pb, Zn, Cd, Cu, and TSS in the mine drainage were gradually reduced from the inlet to the outlet of the wetland system and 99%, 98%, 75%, 83%, and 68% of these metals and TSS respectively, had been reduced in concentration after the drainage passed through the wetland system. A total of 105 protozoan species were identified, the number of protozoa species and the diversity index (DI) gradually increased, while the heterotrophic index (HI) gradually decreased from the inlet to the outlet of the wetland system. The results indicated that DI, HI, and total number species of protozoa could be used as biological indicators indicating the improvement of water quality.

香根草生态学特性及其应用研究

用百喜草(Paspalum notatum)和水花(Alternanthera philoxeroides)等草本植物作对比，通过叶片离体实验、温室盆栽实验、田间小区实验和大田推广实验，并结合室内分析，较系统地研究了香根草(Vetiveria zizanioides)的抗热、抗冻和抗盐特性和对污水的净化效果。此外，还探讨了矮化香根草和促进香根草分蘖的可能性；提出了香根草生态工程的思想，阐述了香根草生态工程推广应用的价值与效果；通过对国内野生香根草资源的调查和标本鉴定,指出了过去对这个种的错误描述，提出了保护野生香根草资源和香根草湿地的紧迫性与重要意义。主要研究结果如下： 1.离体叶片电解质渗漏的测定结果表明，3种植物对高温、冻害、干旱的抵抗力依次为香根草 > 百喜草 > 水花生，特别是在胁迫程度高、幅度大或胁迫时间长时，香根草所表现出的强抗逆性更加明显。香根草有比百喜草和水花生更强的适应能力。2.叶片电导率的实验结果显示，香根草、水花生和百喜草对盐胁迫的反应相差不明显，但盆栽实验则显示出较大差异，抗盐能力明显表现为香根草 > 水花生 > 百喜草。导致3种植物生物量下降10％的EC_(se)值分别为6.4、5.1和4.3 dS m~(-1)；导致生物量下降50％的EC_(se)分别为20.9、16.2和11.5 dS m~(-1)。在抗盐等级划分上，香根草和水花生属抗盐植物种类，百喜草属中度抗盐种类。总的来说，3种植物都表现出了相对较强的抗盐特性。以上结果还表明考察植物的抗盐性时必须用整株做为实验材料，离体叶片或组织培养所得到的结果不能作为植物抗盐能力的标准。3.植物体内Na~+和Cl~-含量随土壤盐度水平升高而升高，而茎叶中的Na~+和Cl~-又直接影响到植物的生物量、叶面积、株高等。这表明盐度对3种植物生长发育的影响相当明显，且植物体的Na~+和Cl~-很可能都是影响植物生长发育的直接因子。然而，叶片光合色素受Na~+或Cl~-的影响不甚明显，而且在Na~+和Cl~-的浓度不高时色素含量还随茎叶中Na~+和Cl~-的浓度升高而显现增加趋势，即使Na~+和Cl~-的浓度较高时，光合色素下降的幅度也远不及生物量的大。这可能由于光合作用是被“反馈抑制”，而不是直接被Na~+或Cl~-抑制。4.3种植物表现出完全不同抗盐机理。香根草表现出拒盐特性，而且将所吸收的盐分的大部分(尤其是Na~+)滞留在根系内：水花生表现为稀盐特性，即当植株体内含盐量增加时，其水分含量亦增加，并趋向肉质化；百喜草有较强的吸盐能力，并可能通过盐腺泌出体内高浓度的盐分且通过加速老叶死亡来排除过多的盐。5.广州市李坑垃圾卫生填埋场的渗滤污水含有高浓度的污染物，经过人工净化后仍未 达到排放标准，对植物产生毒害并带来严重的环境污染，须作进一步净化，并建议开展生物净化来辅助物理和化学净化。6.在被观测的4种植物中，风眼莲(Eichhornia crassipes)在高浓度和低浓度2种污水中均被毒害致死；百喜草在高浓度的渗滤液中不能存活，在低浓度中受严重伤害；水花生在高浓度污水中受较重伤害，但在低浓度形成庞大生物体，这可能是污水的“富营养化”所致；香根草在这2种污水中亦受伤害，但受害程度为4种植物中最轻。总的来说，它们的抗污能力和去污效果表现为香根草 > 水花生 > 百喜草 > 风眼莲。7.在污水中表现相对较好的2种植物中，水花生对低浓度污水的净化效果总体上好于香根草，尤其对总氮和硝态氮的净化效果明显好于香根草，但香根草对高浓度污水中的7种“污物”的净化效果均优于水花生，且对低浓度污水中的磷与COD的净化亦优于水花生。在被观测的7种水质指标中，植物对氨氮的净化效果最好，净化率在77％～91％之间。此外，香根草对磷也表现出了较强的净化能力，净化率高达70％以上。香根草和水花生可分别作为高、低2种浓度垃圾污水的净化植物来辅助净化污水。8.香根草虽不是水生植物，但能在水中生长。用香根草作为污水的净化植物时须用支撑物将其固定；香根草和水花生都生长迅速，生物体高大，因此用它们净化被污染的环境时，还应适时对其地上部分进行剪割以保证新生的植株体能不断地吸收水中“污物”，使它们都能成为“超级生物累积器”。但是，任何单一植物对污水或污物的净化能力都是有限的，要想对垃圾污水产生好的净化效果，最好的办法也许是将香根草、水花生等多种有良好净化效果的植物有机结合起来，同时种植在污水中。9.植物通过吸收来去除“污物”的能力是很有限的。香根草和水花生对污水中N、P、Cl~-的吸收量只占净化量的一部分，和原液中N、P、Cl~-的含量相比，吸收量所占的比例更低。植物净化系统中的去污方式除根系的吸收作用外，还有根系的吸附、元素的沉降、固结和挥发、水体中微小动物和微生物的作用等，即是通过根系微生态系统的综合作用来达到净化目的。10.植物生长延缓剂对香根草的株高生长、分蘖速度和抽穗开花等方面都产生影响，但不同的药剂种类和浓度所产生的影响相差甚远。低浓度的延缓剂不仅不抑制香根草的株高生长，而且还有显著地促进作用，高浓度虽有抑制作用，但这种抑制也只是短期的，一般不超过2个月。延缓剂对分蘖的形成具有较好的促进作用，而且这种促进作用持续3个月左右。3种延缓剂中，以低浓度的B9促进分蘖的效果最显著，比对照高出50％。不同的延缓剂对香根草抽穗扬花的影响表现不同，PP333具有一定的促进效果，而CCC和B9-尤其是B9-表现出明显的抑制作用。总的来说，B9对香根草矮化、促进分蘖和抑制开花方面产生的效果要好于CCC和PP333。11.植物生长延缓剂对香根草的作用效果与对一般作物的作用效果相差较远，这可能是香根草的抗性较强，延缓剂对它的影响不明显所致。总的来说，植物生长延缓剂对香根草株高生长的抑制效果不理想。有关这方面的研究还有待进一步开展。12.公路滑坡不仅带来严重的交通阻塞，而且危及到行车与行人的安全。常规治理公路滑坡的手段是采取砌石墙的工程措施，这不仅费用昂贵，而且缺乏生态效益，也难以达到根治效果。应用香根草生态工程(The Vetiver Eco-engineering)对滑坡路段进行综合治理,能产生良好护坡固土效果，而且所需成本仅为机械工程的12％～18％。香根草生态工程是指以香根草为主要或核心草种，同时与一些适合当地生长的植物—包括乔木、灌木、草本、藤本一进行有机搭配，并在需要时辅以一定的工程措施，用于水土流失治理和退化生态系统的恢复的植物生态工程措施。13.为了使香根草生态工程尽快生效，应采取一定的栽培管理措施。香根草应等高密植，注意施肥，前期不要被遮光；所搭配的植物应该是抗逆性强，乔、灌、草、藤结合起来，并注意在香根草带中间适当种植一些生长迅速、抗瘠能力强、覆盖效果好的草本植物，这不仅能使坡面更稳固，而且能变得更美观。总之，香根草生态工程在公路护坡方面所产生的经济效益、社会效益和生态效益都是相当明显的，在我国南方地区有着广阔的应用前景。14.一般认为，香根草原产印度，然而，中国亦有天然的香根草群落分布。早在70多年前就在海南发现野生的香根草种，1957年又在广东吴川发现一片面积达6000多hm~2的湿生性的天然香根草群落。40年来，这片珍贵的热带湿地遭到严重破坏，香根草的面积和密度都大幅度下降。对此，笔者建议尽快在当地划一块自然保护区，这不仅是为了保护珍贵的野生香根草资源，保护当地的生物多样性和生态环境，而且能为研究热带湿地和草原提供理想基地，并为研究香根草的起源、系统演化和分类提供理想素材。15.过去的文献一直把广东吴川这片湿地中的野生香根草种认为是V. nigritana,但本文的标本鉴定认为它并不是V. nigritana或其它种，而是V. zizanioides。不过，引种栽培观测和RAPD技术研究都表明，这一野生种和普通的栽培种属于同一个种的不同生态型或基因型，而导致形成这种差异的原因是由于野生种生长在长年渍水或干湿交替的环境所致。16.目前对香根草的起源和系统演化知之甚少，香根草属的系统分类还很不完善，有 关香根草对重金属、污染物的抗性机理等诸多方面都还不太清楚或很不清楚。因此，对 香根草这一神奇植物的研究还有待继续深入地开展下去。总之，香根草这一多年生的禾本科植物对盐、碱、酸、瘦、冷、热、早、涝都表现出了较强抗性，在水土流失防治、退化生境恢复、污染环境净化、贫瘠土壤改良、农田小气候改善等方面都表现出了较好效果。香根草无愧是一种神奇之草。然而，要真正将香根草生态工程在我国南方地区大规模推广开来，还需要做较多的工作，这包括更深一步的科学研究、更广泛的宣传、培训与示范、更充分的资源利用与经济创收等。

Proposta de manejo de Memora peregrina - a Ciganinha.

A "ciganinha", cientificamente conhecida como Memora peregrina (Miers) Sandwith (Bignoniaceae), presente em diversas áreas de cerrado do Brasil Central, vem sendo um sério problema como invasora de pastagens cultivadas, em especial, quando estas já se encontram em adiantado estado de degradação. Nunes (1999) descreve-a como um arbusto, com ramos semilenhosos, entouceirado, ereto, que atinge a altura entre 100 e 150 centímetros. Apresenta inflorescências vistosas com flores amarelas semelhantes às do ipê-amarelo, o que contribuía para que, até recentemente, fosse catalogada apenas como planta ornamental (LORENZI; SOUZA, 1995). O principal período de florada ocorre na primavera e no verão, embora a presença de flores pode ser observada, praticamente, em qualquer época do ano. Sua reprodução se dá por sementes aladas, contidas em camadas sobrepostas no interior de uma cápsula com aspecto de uma longa vagem e, também, por processo vegetativo. Esse último ocorre pela ativação de gemas latentes presentes no caule, tanto em sua parte aérea quanto na subterrânea, em resposta ao seu eventual fracionamento ou quando este sofre lesões de qualquer natureza, especialmente por tratos mecânicos. Pouco se conhece sobre M. peregrina, porque mesmo em pastagens com gramíneas nativas e/ou naturalizadas, como Paspalum notatum (grama batatais ou mato-grosso), Melinis minutiflora (capimgordura) ou Hyparrhenia rufa (capim-jaraguá), manejadas há décadas com roçadeiras ou fogo, essa planta não é considerada problema. A ciganinha só assumiu o status de praga anos depois da implantação de pastagens cultivadas com uso de arados, grades de aração e subsoladores, sendo, em muitos casos, indicadora de pastagens degradadas ou em processo de degradação.

Calagem e adubacao para o plantio do Capim-Pojuca.

2001

Cultivo do capim Pojuca.

2001

Pastagens no Pantanal.

Quatro milhoes de bovinos sao sustentados pelas pastagens naturais do Pantanal, para as quais sao listadas 145 gramineas, 70 leguminosas e 60 forrageiras nao convencionais (de 31 familias), alem de 21 invasoras, com graus de frequencia, textura de solo, alagamento e qualificacao forrageira. Sao apresentados teores de PB para 15 gramineas, e de PB e minerais para 20 forrageiras de outras familias. As principais forrageiras do Pantanal arenoso sao Axonopus purpusii (mimoso) e Mesosetum chaseae (grama-de-cerrado); do argiloso, sao Hemartyria altissima (mimoso-de-talo) e Leersia hexandra (felpudo), enquanto no siltoso sao Paratheria prostrata (mimoso-peludo), Paspalidum paludivagum, Paspalum plicatulum (felpudo) Reimarochloa spp.(mimosinho), que tambem estao entreas principais dos dois tipos texturais anteriores. As leguminosas herbaceas tem pequena expressao nas areas arenosas, Desmodium barbatum sendo a principal; nas argilosas, ha tres especies de Aeschynomene, duas de Discolobium e Arachis, e uma de Dolichopsis, Galactia, Rhynchosia, Teramnus e Vigna, como mais frequentes. As pastagens cultivadas sao recentes, a principal sendo Brachiaria decumbens, em "cordilheiras" arenosas.