Quantitative assessment of enzyme specificity in vivo: P2 recognition by Kex2 protease defined in a genetic system

The specificity of the yeast proprotein-processing Kex2 protease was examined in vivo by using a sensitive, quantitative assay. A truncated prepro-α-factor gene encoding an α-factor precursor with a single α-factor repeat was constructed with restriction sites for cassette mutagenesis flanking the single Kex2 cleavage site (-SLDKR↓EAEA-). All of the 19 substitutions for the Lys (P2) residue in the cleavage site were made. The wild-type and mutant precursors were expressed in a yeast strain lacking the chromosomal genes encoding Kex2 and prepro-α-factor. Cleavage of the 20 sites by Kex2, expressed at the wild-type level, was assessed by using a quantitative-mating assay with an effective range greater than six orders of magnitude. All substitutions for Lys at P2 decreased mating, from 2-fold for Arg to >106-fold for Trp. Eviction of the Kex2-encoding plasmid indicated that cleavage of mutant sites by other cellular proteases was not a complicating factor. Mating efficiencies of strains expressing the mutant precursors correlated well with the specificity (kcat/KM) of purified Kex2 for comparable model peptide substrates, validating the in vivo approach as a quantitative method. The results support the conclusion that KM, which is heavily influenced by the nature of the P2 residue, is a major determinant of cleavage efficiency in vivo. P2 preference followed the rank order: Lys > Arg > Thr > Pro > Glu > Ile > Ser > Ala > Asn > Val > Cys > AsP > Gln > Gly > His > Met > Leu > Tyr > Phe > Trp.

Mutations within a furin consensus sequence block proteolytic release of ectodysplasin-A and cause X-linked hypohidrotic ectodermal dysplasia

X-linked hypohidrotic ectodermal dysplasia (XLHED) is a heritable disorder of the ED-1 gene disrupting the morphogenesis of ectodermal structures. The ED-1 gene product, ectodysplasin-A (EDA), is a tumor necrosis factor (TNF) family member and is synthesized as a membrane-anchored precursor protein with the TNF core motif located in the C-terminal domain. The stalk region of EDA contains the sequence -Arg-Val-Arg-Arg156-Asn-Lys-Arg159-, representing overlapping consensus cleavage sites (Arg-X-Lys/Arg-Arg↓) for the proprotein convertase furin. Missense mutations in four of the five basic residues within this sequence account for ≈20% of all known XLHED cases, with mutations occurring most frequently at Arg156, which is shared by the two consensus furin sites. These analyses suggest that cleavage at the furin site(s) in the stalk region is required for the EDA-mediated cell-to-cell signaling that regulates the morphogenesis of ectodermal appendages. Here we show that the 50-kDa EDA parent molecule is cleaved at -Arg156Asn-Lys-Arg159↓- to release the soluble C-terminal fragment containing the TNF core domain. This cleavage appears to be catalyzed by furin, as release of the TNF domain was blocked either by expression of the furin inhibitor α1-PDX or by expression of EDA in furin-deficient LoVo cells. These results demonstrate that mutation of a functional furin cleavage site in a developmental signaling molecule is a basis for human disease (XLHED) and raise the possibility that furin cleavage may regulate the ability of EDA to act as a juxtacrine or paracrine factor.

Subunit cleavage of mosquito pro-vitellogenin by a subtilisin-like convertase.

The eukaryotic convertase family plays an important role in posttranslational proteolytic processing and activation of many pro- and polypeptides that have at their cleavage sites the paired basic motif, RX(K/R)R. Recent studies have revealed that the cleavage site of insect pro-vitellogenins (pro-Vg) also contains this motif. To identify and characterize the insect pro-Vg processing enzyme, Vg convertase (VC), its cDNA was cloned from a vitellogenic female fat body cDNA library of the mosquito, Aedes aegypti. The 3735-bp-long VC cDNA has an open reading frame encoding a 115-kDa protein. In vitro transcription/translation of VC cDNA revealed that this 115-kDa protein becomes 140 kDa after co- and posttranslational modifications. The VC deduced amino acid sequence has high similarity to and a domain structure characteristic of furin-like convertases. Northern blot analysis showed that a single 4.2-kb transcript was expressed in the fat body during the first 18 hr of the Vg synthetic period. Coexpression of VC cDNA with mosquito Vg cDNA resulted in correct cleavage of pro-Vg. Thus, this newly identified convertase is, indeed, a functional fat body-specific enzyme for pro-Vg cleavage.

Mass spectrometric amino acid sequencing of a mixture of seed storage proteins (napin) from Brassica napus, products of a multigene family.

The amino acid sequences of a number of closely related proteins ("napin") isolated from Brassica napus were determined by mass spectrometry without prior separation into individual components. Some of these proteins correspond to those previously deduced (napA, BngNAP1, and gNa), chiefly from DNA sequences. Others were found to differ to a varying extent (BngNAP1', BngNAP1A, BngNAP1B, BngNAP1C, gNa', and gNaA). The short chains of gNa and gNa' and of BngNAP1 and BngNAP1' differ by the replacement of N-terminal proline by pyroglutamic acid; the long chains of gNaA and BngNAP1B contain a six amino acid stretch, MQGQQM, which is present in gNa (according to its DNA sequence) but absent from BngNAP1 and BngNAP1C. These alternations of sequences between napin isoforms are most likely due to homologous recombination of the genetic material, but some of the changes may also be due to RNA editing. The amino acids that follow the untruncated C termini of those napin chains for which the DNA sequences are known (napA, BngNAP1, and gNa) are aromatic amino acids. This suggests that the processing of the proprotein leading to the C termini of the two chains is due to the action of a protease that specifically cleaves a G/S-F/Y/W bond.

Pulmonary malformation in transgenic mice expressing human keratinocyte growth factor in the lung.

Expression of human keratinocyte growth factor (KGF/FGF-7) was directed to epithelial cells of the developing embryonic lung of transgenic mice disrupting normal pulmonary morphogenesis during the pseudoglandular stage of development. By embryonic day 15.5(E15.5), lungs of transgenic surfactant protein C (SP-C)-KGF mice resembled those of humans with pulmonary cystadenoma. Lungs were cystic, filling the thoracic cavity, and were composed of numerous dilated saccules lined with glycogen-containing columnar epithelial cells. The normal distribution of SP-C proprotein in the distal regions of respiratory tubules was disrupted. Columnar epithelial cells lining the papillary structures stained variably and weakly for this distal respiratory cell marker. Mesenchymal components were preserved in the transgenic mouse lungs, yet the architectural relationship of the epithelium to the mesenchyme was altered. SP-C-KGF transgenic mice failed to survive gestation to term, dying before E17.5. Culturing mouse fetal lung explants in the presence of recombinant human KGF also disrupted branching morphogenesis and resulted in similar cystic malformation of the lung. Thus, it appears that precise temporal and spatial expression of KGF is likely to play a crucial role in the control of branching morphogenesis during fetal lung development.

Proteolytic maturation of protein C upon engineering the mouse mammary gland to express furin.

Endoproteolytic processing of the human protein C (HPC) precursor to its mature form involves cleavage of the propeptide after amino acids Lys-2-Arg-1 and removal of a Lys156-Arg157 dipeptide connecting the light and heavy chains. This processing was inefficient in the mammary gland of transgenic mice and pigs. We hypothesized that the protein processing capacity of specific animal organs may be improved by the coexpression of selected processing enzymes. We tested this by targeting expression of the human proprotein processing enzyme, named paired basic amino acid cleaving enzyme (PACE)/furin, or an enzymatically inactive mutant, PACEM, to the mouse mammary gland. In contrast to mice expressing HPC alone, or to HPC/PACEM bigenic mice, coexpression of PACE with HPC resulted in efficient conversion of the precursor to mature protein, with cleavage at the appropriate sites. These results suggest the involvement of PACE in the processing of HPC in vivo and represent an example of the engineering of animal organs into bioreactors with enhanced protein processing capacity.

A Selective Irreversible Inhibitor of Furin Does Not Prevent Pseudomonas Aeruginosa Exotoxin A-Induced Airway Epithelial Cytotoxicity

Many bacterial and viral pathogens (or their toxins), including Pseudomonas aeruginosa exotoxin A, require processing by host pro-protein convertases such as furin to cause dis- ease. We report the development of a novel irreversible inhibitor of furin (QUB-F1) consist- ing of a diphenyl phosphonate electrophilic warhead coupled with a substrate-like peptide (RVKR), that also includes a biotin tag, to facilitate activity-based profiling/visualisation. QUB-F1 displays greater selectivity for furin, in comparison to a widely used exemplar com- pound (furin I) which has a chloromethylketone warhead coupled to RVKR, when tested against the serine trypsin-like proteases (trypsin, prostasin and matriptase), factor Xa and the cysteine protease cathepsin B. We demonstrate QUB-F1 does not prevent P. aerugi- nosa exotoxin A-induced airway epithelial cell toxicity; in contrast to furin I, despite inhibiting cell surface furin-like activity to a similar degree. This finding indicates additional proteases, which are sensitive to the more broad-spectrum furin I compound, may be involved in this process.

Élucidation et identification des différents interacteurs impliqués dans le mécanisme de régulation du LDLR par la protéine PCSK9

Résumé : Les maladies cardiovasculaires représentent la principale cause de mortalité mondiale, soit le tiers des décès annuels selon l’Organisation mondiale de la Santé. L’hypercholestérolémie, caractérisée par une élévation des niveaux plasmatiques de lipoprotéines de faible densité (LDL), est l’un des facteurs de risque majeur pour les maladies cardiovasculaires. La proprotéine convertase subtilisine/kexine type 9 (PCSK9) joue un rôle essentiel dans l’homéostasie du cholestérol sanguin par la régulation des niveaux protéiques du récepteur LDL (LDLR). PCSK9 est capable de se lier au LDLR et favorise l’internalisation et la dégradation du récepteur dans les lysosomes. L’inhibition de PCSK9 s’avère une cible thérapeutique validée pour le traitement de l’hypercholestérolémie et la prévention des maladies cardiovasculaires. Par contre, plusieurs mécanismes responsables de la régulation et la dégradation du complexe PCSK9-LDLR n’ont pas encore été complètement caractérisés comme la régulation par la protéine annexin A2 (AnxA2), un inhibiteur endogène de PCSK9. De plus, plusieurs évidences suggèrent la présence d’une ou plusieurs protéines, encore inconnues, impliquées dans le mécanisme d’action de PCSK9. Celles-ci pourraient réguler l’internalisation et le transport du complexe PCSK9-LDLR vers les lysosomes. Les objectifs de cette thèse sont de mieux définir le rôle et l’impact de l’AnxA2 sur la protéine PCSK9 en plus d’identifier de nouveaux partenaires d’interactions de PCSK9 pour mieux caractériser son mécanisme d’action sur la régulation des niveaux de LDLR. Nous avons démontré que l’inhibition de PCSK9 par l’AnxA2 extracellulaire s’effectue via sa liaison aux domaines M1+M2 de la région C-terminale de PCSK9 et nous avons mis en évidence les premières preuves d’un contrôle intracellulaire de l’AnxA2 sur la traduction de l’ARNm de PCSK9. Nos résultats révèlent une liaison de l’AnxA2 à l’ARN messager de PCSK9 qui cause une répression traductionnelle. Nous avons également identifié la protéine glypican-3 (GPC3) comme un nouveau partenaire d’interaction extracellulaire avec le PCSK9 et intracellulaire avec le complexe PCSK9-LDLR dans le réticulum endoplasmique des cellules HepG2 et Huh7. Nos études démontrent que GPC3 réduit l’activité extracellulaire de PCSK9 en agissant comme un compétiteur du LDLR pour la liaison avec PCSK9. Une meilleure compréhension des mécanismes de régulation et de dégradation du complexe PCKS9-LDLR permettra de mieux évaluer l’impact et l’efficacité des inhibiteurs de la protéine PCSK9.