Export Promotion through Exchange Rate Policy: Exchange Rate Depreciation or Stabilization?

Exchange rate movements affect exports in two ways -- its depreciation and its variability (risk). A depreciation raises exports, but the associated exchange rate risk could offset that positive effect. The present paper investigates the net effect for eight Asian countries using a dynamic conditional correlation bivariate GARCH-M model that simultaneously estimates time varying correlation and exchange rate risk. Depreciation encourages exports, as expected, for most countries, but its contribution to export growth is weak. Exchange rate risk contributes to export growth in Malaysia and the Philippines, leading to positive net effects. Exchange rate risk generates a negative effect for six of the countries, resulting in a negative net effect in Indonesia, Japan, Singapore, Taiwan and a zero net effect in Korea and Thailand. Since the negative effect of exchange rate risk may offset, or even dominate, positive contributions from depreciation, policy makers need to reduce exchange rate fluctuation along with and possibly before efforts to depreciate the currency.

(Table 1) Climate characteristics of the four North American Tundra Experiment (ITEX) sites

Climate warming is expected to differentially affect CO2 exchange of the diverse ecosystems in the Arctic. Quantifying responses of CO2 exchange to warming in these ecosystems will require coordinated experimentation using standard temperature manipulations and measurements. Here, we used the International Tundra Experiment (ITEX) standard warming treatment to determine CO2 flux responses to growing-season warming for ecosystems spanning natural temperature and moisture ranges across the Arctic biome. We used the four North American Arctic ITEX sites (Toolik Lake, Atqasuk, and Barrow [USA] and Alexandra Fiord [Canada]) that span 10° of latitude. At each site, we investigated the CO2 responses to warming in both dry and wet or moist ecosystems. Net ecosystem CO2 exchange (NEE), ecosystem respiration (ER), and gross ecosystem photosynthesis (GEP) were assessed using chamber techniques conducted over 24-h periods sampled regularly throughout the summers of two years at all sites. At Toolik Lake, warming increased net CO2 losses in both moist and dry ecosystems. In contrast, at Atqasuk and Barrow, warming increased net CO2 uptake in wet ecosystems but increased losses from dry ecosystems. At Alexandra Fiord, warming improved net carbon uptake in the moist ecosystem in both years, but in the wet and dry ecosystems uptake increased in one year and decreased the other. Warming generally increased ER, with the largest increases in dry ecosystems. In wet ecosystems, high soil moisture limited increases in respiration relative to increases in photosynthesis. Warming generally increased GEP, with the notable exception of the Toolik Lake moist ecosystem, where warming unexpectedly decreased GEP >25%. Overall, the respiration response determined the effect of warming on ecosystem CO2 balance. Our results provide the first multiple-site comparison of arctic tundra CO2 flux responses to standard warming treatments across a large climate gradient. These results indicate that (1) dry tundra may be initially the most responsive ecosystems to climate warming by virtue of strong increases in ER, (2) moist and wet tundra responses are dampened by higher water tables and soil water contents, and (3) both GEP and ER are responsive to climate warming, but the magnitudes and directions are ecosystem-dependent.

Geographical variation in carbon dioxide fluxes from soils in agro-ecosystems and its implications for life-cycle assessment

1. Exchange of carbon dioxide (CO2) from soils can contribute significantly to the global warming potential (GWP) of agro-ecosystems. Due to variations in soil type, climatic onditions and land management practices, exchange of CO2 can differ markedly in different geographical locations. The food industry is developing carbon footprints for their products necessitating integration of CO2 exchange from soils with other CO2 emissions along the food chain. It may be advantageous to grow certain crops in different geographical locations to minimize CO2 emissions from the soil, and this may provide potential to offset other emissions in the food chain, such as transport. 2. Values are derived for the C balance of soils growing horticultural crops in the UK, Spain and Uganda. Net ecosystem production (NEP) is firstly calculated from the difference in net primary production (NPP) and heterotrophic soil respiration (Rh). Both NPP and Rh were estimated from intensive direct field measurements. Secondly, net biome production (NBP) is calculated by subtracting the crop biomass from NEP to give an indication of C balance. The importance of soil exchange is discussed in the light of recent discussions on carbon footprints and within the context of food life-cycle assessment (LCA). 3. The amount of crop relative to the biomass and the Rh prevailing in the different countries were the dominant factors influencing the magnitude of NEP and NBP. The majority of the biomass for lettuce Lactuca sativa and vining peas Pisum sativum, was removed from the field as crop; therefore, NEP and NBP were mainly negative. This was amplified for lettuces grown in Uganda (-16·5 and -17 t C ha-1 year-1 compared to UK and Spain -4·8 to 7·4 and -5·1 to 6·3 t C ha-1 year-1 for NEP and NBP, respectively) where the climate elevated Rh. 4. Synthesis and applications. This study demonstrates the importance of soil emissions in the overall life cycle of vegetables. Variability in such emissions suggests that assigning a single value to food carbon footprints may not be adequate, even within a country. Locations with high heterotrophic soil respiration, such as Spain and Uganda (21·9 and 21·6 t C ha-1 year-1, respectively), could mitigate the negative effects of climate on the C costs of crop production by growth of crops with greater returns of residue to the soil. This would minimize net CO2 emissions from these agricultural ecosystems.

Seawater carbonate chemistry and net calcification during experiments with coral communities, 2009

Acidification of seawater owing to oceanic uptake of atmospheric CO2 originating from human activities such as burning of fossil fuels and land-use changes has raised serious concerns regarding its adverse effects on corals and calcifying communities. Here we demonstrate a net loss of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) material as a result of decreased calcification and increased carbonate dissolution from replicated subtropical coral reef communities (n=3) incubated in continuous-flow mesocosms subject to future seawater conditions. The calcifying community was dominated by the coral Montipora capitata. Daily average community calcification or Net Ecosystem Calcification (NEC=CaCO3 production - dissolution) was positive at 3.3 mmol CaCO3 m-2 h-1 under ambient seawater pCO2 conditions as opposed to negative at -0.04 mmol CaCO3 m-2 h-1 under seawater conditions of double the ambient pCO2. These experimental results provide support for the conclusion that some net calcifying communities could become subject to net dissolution in response to anthropogenic ocean acidification within this century. Nevertheless, individual corals remained healthy, actively calcified (albeit slower than at present rates), and deposited significant amounts of CaCO3 under the prevailing experimental seawater conditions of elevated pCO2.

Overwintering ecology of northern field layer plants : snow and photosynthesis in Vaccinium vitis-idaea L.

Winter is a significant period for the seasonality of northern plants, but is often overlooked when studying the interactions of plants and their environment. This study focuses on the effects of overwintering conditions, including warm winter periods, snow, and snowmelt on boreal and sub-Arctic field layer plants. Wintertime photosynthesis and related physiological factors of evergreen dwarf shrubs, particularly of Vaccinium vitis-idaea, are emphasised. The work combines experiments both in the field and in growth chambers with measurements in natural field conditions. Evergreen dwarf shrubs are predominantly covered by snow in the winter. The protective snow cover provides favourable conditions for photosynthesis, especially during the spring before snowmelt. The results of this study indicate that photosynthesis occurs under the snow in V. vitis-idaea. The light response of photosynthesis determined in field conditions during the period of snow cover shows that positive net CO2 exchange is possible under the snow in the prevailing light and temperature. Photosynthetic capacity increases readily during warm periods in winter and the plants are thus able to replenish carbohydrate reserves lost through respiration. Exposure to low temperatures in combination with high light following early snowmelt can set back photosynthesis as sustained photoprotective measures are activated and photodamage begins to build up. Freezing may further decrease the photosynthetic capacity. The small-scale distribution of many field layer plants, including V. vitis-idaea and other dwarf shrubs, correlates with the snow distribution in a forest. The results of this study indicate that there are species-specific differences in the snow depth affinity of the field and ground layer species. Events and processes taking place in winter can have a profound effect on the overall performance of plants and on the interactions between plants and their environment. Understanding the processes involved in the overwintering of plants is increasingly important as the wintertime climate in the north is predicted to change in the future.

中国主要森林生态系统碳储量和碳收支评估

森林作为陆地生态系统中主要的植被类型在全球碳循环研究中有着十分重要的作用，而森林资源清样调查资料以其系统性、科学性、连续性等优点在森林生态系统碳循环研究中具有十分重要的地位。本研究以中国主要森林植被类型为研究对象，基于中国森林资源清样调查资料（FID），采用建立的生物气候生产力模型和反映林龄和蓄积量共同影响的生产力回归模型分别估计了中国油松林和主要造林树种的生产力;利用改进的材积源生物量法估算了中国主要森林植被类型的碳储量;并基于多元线性回归方法和因子分析法探讨了林业用地以及气候因子对中国森林植被碳储量的影响;同时，结合生物地球化学循环模型CENTURY模型评估了中国森林生态系统的碳收支。主要研究结果如下： 1建立了中国油松林生物气候生产力模型NPPa=［0.331n（V／A）+0.18］*3000（1-e-0.00096‘哪，根据油松林的森林资源清样调查资料和气候资料估算的中国油松林生产力平均为7.82Mg•ha-1•yr-1，其变化幅度为3.32-11.87Mg•ha-1•yr-1，其分布表现为南高北低的趋势。生产力较高的区域主要分布在东部和南部（四川、湖北、河南、辽宁等省），均大于7.7Mg•ha-1•yr-1;生产力较低的区域主要分布在北部和西部较为干旱的区域（内蒙古），NPP均低于5.5Mg•ha-1•yr-1：油松林集中分布区（陕西、山西）生产力处于中等水平，在5.5-7.7Mg•ha-1•yr-1之间。 2基于森林资源清样调查资料评估了中国五种主要造林树种（落叶松Larix，油松Pinusstabulaeformis，马尾松Pinusmassoniana，杉木Cunninghamialanceolata，杨树Populus）的生产力，分别为8.43、5.75、4.42、4.41、7.33Mg•ha-1•yr-1，低于世界平均生产力水平，主要原因可能是这五种造林树种大都处于未成熟阶段，表明中国造林树种在提高中国森林生态系统的固碳能力方面有很大的潜力。 3基于两次（第三次和第四次）森林资源清查资料和改进的材积源生物量法评估了中国森林的碳储量，分别为3.48和3.78PgC（1Pg＝1015g）。 基于多元线性回归模型探讨了林业用地变化对森林植被碳储量的影响。分析表明：在森林平均林龄减小的情况下，森林植被碳储量有增加的趋势;而森林碳储量随森林面积的增加而增加。当平均林龄增加10年，全国森林面积增加1*104ha时，全国森林植被的碳储量将增加54.51Tg（1Tg＝1012g），表明我国森林植被碳储量取决于自然和人为因素共同作用。 采用因子分析方法探讨了气候变化对森林植被碳储量的影响，分析表明：气温是森林植被碳储量的主要限制因子。当气温升高时，森林植被碳储量有降低的趋势;降水与森林植被碳储量呈正相关，随降水的增加森林植被碳储量增加。在年均温升高4℃，年降水量增加10％;年均温升高4℃，年降水量不变;年均温升高4℃，年降水量减少10％三种气候变化情景下，我国森林植被碳储量的增加量分别为：9.19Tg、6.67Tg和4.15Tg。 4基于生物地球化学循环模型模拟的中国森林生态系统的碳收支为0.17PgC，中国森林表现为一个巨大的碳汇。其中，西南地区森林碳收支占44％，华东及西北地区的森林碳收支总和不足14%。

内蒙古农牧交错区典型草地和农田生态系统碳通量的研究

涡度相关技术是唯一能直接测定大气与植被间CO2通量的标准方法。随着全球变化研究的深入，人类活动干扰下陆地生态系统碳通量研究越来越受到关注，对草地生态系统的研究更是备受关注。本研究选择位于内蒙古典型的农牧交错区——多伦县的典型克氏针茅草地和被开垦的农田为研究对象，利用涡度相关技术，结合各环境因子，在不同时间尺度上探讨了控制内蒙古草地生态系统碳通量可能的生理机制。利用一年多净生态系统CO2气体交换（NEE）通量的观测，量化了这个地区草地生态系统的碳储备量，并进一步阐明了开垦对该区域生态系统物质能量流动的影响。我们还利用Keeling同位素曲线与微气象技术相结合的方法把生态系统夜间呼吸区分为自养呼吸和异养呼吸;同时利用同化箱式法，把草地生态系统白天群落呼吸进行了区分，进一步了解了不同生态过程对净碳通量的贡献。 结果表明，控制该地区生态系统碳通量主要的环境因子是土壤含水量（VWC）和温度。两个生态系统的植被叶面积指数（LAI）和生物量在非干旱季都要高于干旱季，因而两个生态系统在非干旱季不同环境因子的不同梯度下的NEEmax都比干旱季的要高。两个生态系统NEE的最大日变幅和日最大值在非旱季与旱季十分接近，说明即使土壤水分有所改善，但由于这个地区贫瘠的土壤限制了生态系统的净碳交换量而使这两个生态系统的固碳能力依旧不高。无论是旱季还是非旱季，草地生态系统呼吸的温度敏感系数Q10都随土壤含水量的增加而增加，这除了水分的促进作用外，另外就是生长旺季根生物量的增加。而在两个生长季里农田生态系统的Q10都随土壤含水量的变化不是很规则，这主要是因为农作改变了植被类型和土壤的物理结构从而引起生态系统微环境、微生物活性以及根生物量的改变，结果影响生态系统呼吸对温度的敏感性。 在连续两个生长季里，两个生态系统碳通量随季节的变化都有明显的日变化，7月份的日变化最大，而且农田生态系统的NEE日变幅大于草地生态系统NEE的日变幅。两个生态系统每个月NEE的日最大值都出现在上午8~9点左右，而生态系统的呼吸（RE）的日最大值都发生在下午14~16点左右。冬季两个生态系统各组分碳通量的日进程几乎都没有差异，系统基本处于碳平衡状态。进入春季，幼小的植被限制了生态系统的碳同化。期间的耕作促进了土壤CO2的大量释放，同时较频繁的降雨不仅影响植被吸收光以进行光合固定碳，同时也进一步加大了农田CO2的释放，结果农田生态系统释放的CO2比草地生态系统多。夏季，两个生态系统都是吸收碳的库，农田生态系统因较高的LAI和较低的生态系统呼吸温度敏感性使其NEP远高于草地生态系统的NEP，是一个较强的碳库。秋末，草地生态系统几乎处于碳平衡的状态。农作物的收割，使得大量含不溶性物质较低枯叶和秸秆残留在地里，农田生态系统呼吸释放的碳量显著高于同期草地释放的碳量。通过2005～2006年对两个生态系统碳通量进行一整年的观测，发现两个生态系统年净固碳量相当，草地净固定71.3 g C m-2，农田净固定64.4 g C m-2。但秋季的收获使农田生态系统近70%的生物量被收走，降低了该系统的固碳能力。 为进一步了解不同生态过程对净碳通量的贡献量，我们利用浓度梯度-同位素法与微气象技术相结合的方法，初步将生态系统呼吸区分为自养呼吸和异养呼吸。草地生态系统在生长旺季自养呼吸占总呼吸80%以上，而农田生态系统在生长季阶段异养呼吸所占整个生态呼吸的比例从60%上升至作物成熟时的80%以上。降雨不仅显著增加草地生态系统呼吸的释放量，而且主要是显著增加了异养呼吸的释放量。此外，我们还利用同化箱式法对草地生态系统的群落呼吸进行区分，结果显示群落总呼吸（Re）有明显的季节变化，最高值在生长季中期。凋落物分解、土壤有机质呼吸、根呼吸和地上植被呼吸在整个生长季平均分别占总生态系统呼吸的19.4%、37.8%、9.8%和32.9%。构建各组分呼吸通量与温度的指数关系，结果显示根呼吸的温度敏感系数最大，土壤有机质的温度敏感性最低。降雨后首先促进了异养呼吸，随后植物的呼吸也开始变大，群落呼吸释放的最高峰出现在雨后第二天。 本研究初步分析了控制内蒙古农牧交错区草地生态系统碳通量的主要因子，量化了该区域草地生态系统的碳储备量，并进一步阐述了开垦对该区域生态系统碳通量的影响。同时尝试不同方法对生态系统碳通量进行了区分，得出了一些具有生态学意义的结果，为进一步探讨控制生态系统碳通量的生理机制提供了可能。

典型草原物候特征及其对生态系统功能的影响研究

植物物候反映的是植物(包括农作物)和环境(气候、水文、土壤条件)的周期性变化之间的相互关系。在气候变化背景下，植物物候已经发生了显著变化，并且对生态系统产生了重要影响。然而，目前的物候研究大多是针对木本植物，对于草本植物的研究则相对缺乏，而且草本植物的物候节律表现出较木本植物更为复杂的特征，不但受温度影响，亦受到水分因素的影响。 本研究利用内蒙古典型草原区克氏针茅草原建群种羊草和克氏针茅自1985～2003年19年的物候资料和气象数据，分析了物候特征及气候因子的变化趋势，探究了两种植物返青期和枯黄期的主导因子。结果表明，克氏针茅草原近20年来的气候发生了显著的变化，总体表现为温度升高、降水量降少、土壤水分含量减少。与以往物候研究结果不同的是，羊草和克氏针茅返青期在气候变暖的背景下却显著滞后。相关分析显示返青前期土壤水分是导致返青滞后的主要原因。对于枯黄期的相关分析同样显示水分因子是制约两种植物生长季结束的关键因子。在检验现有返青期和枯黄期物候模型对于典型草原适用性的基础上，本研究选择应用广泛、计算简便的CTM(Cumulative Temperature Model)模型作为改进返青期物候模型的基础，在其中加入了水分的影响，使得改进返青期物候模型可以很好的模拟典型草原植物返青期，模拟误差小于7天。同时，构建了考虑水分和温度共同影响的枯黄期模型。改进后的物候模型提高了DCTEM(Dynamic Chinese Terrestrial Ecosystems Model)模型的模拟精度。 基于耦合改进物候模块的DCTEM模型对影响生态系统NPP(Net Primary Productivity)、NEP(Net Ecosystem Productivity)和AET(Annual Evapotranspiration)的因子加以分析。结果显示，降水量是影响克氏针茅草原生态系统功能的主要因子，其对于NPP、NEP、AET以及土壤异养呼吸等均有不同程度的影响。其次，生长季长度变化对于克氏针茅生态系统功能呈现出显著的影响作用，其影响程度仅次于降水量。 为了量化在实际的气象条件下单位生长季长度变化所引起生态系统NPP、NEP和AET的变化幅度，设置了三个引起生长季长度变化的物候模拟情景(动态枯黄情景、动态返青情景、动态起止情景)以及对照情景。研究结果显示，不同情景下植物生长季长度变化对于生态系统功能有着不同程度的影响。动态枯黄情景下由于草原枯黄期使整个生长季每延长一天NEP增加3.11％，NPP为0.34％，对于AET的影响最小为0.06％;动态返青情景下，由于草原返青期波动使得整个生长季延长一天则NEP增加1.54%，NPP为0.15％，对于AET的影响最小为0.01％;在动态起止情景下，生长季延长一天则NEP增加3.37%，NPP为0.39％，对于AET的影响最小为0.06％。总体而言，由于枯黄期引起的生长季变化对生态系统功能影响程度比由于返青期引起的程度高。此外，不同的生态系统功能要素对于物候变化的影响程度也有所不同。在几种模拟情景下，NEP受到生长季变化的影响最大，其次为NPP，AET受物候变化影响最小。

涡动相关法估算森林生产力及与测树学方法的比较

大气中CO2、CH4和其它温室气体浓度升高导致的全球气候变化引起了人们对全球碳循环和碳收支的关注，植被与大气间CO2通量的长期测定能够加深对陆地生态系统在全球碳循环作用的科学理解。本文以我国北方典型的温带植被类型长白山阔叶红松林为研究对象，利用观测塔上的涡动相关系统对长白山阔仆卜红松林进行长期的CO2通量监测，并分析CO2通量的周年动态，估算森林净生态系统生产力；同时基于测树学方法，进行群落调查，根据已有的经验公式，估算森林净生态系统生产力，综合评价长白山阔汗卜红松林碳收支，为森林碳收支的研究提供基础。主要结论有：（1）FSAM模型的分析结果表明，观测塔上40m高度的涡动相关仪器测量的信息中，76％来自于西北至西南方相对均质的阔叶红松原始林，其中footprint最大的源区在塔西南方100m-400m范围内。因此，森林群落调查选择在此区内进行，使得涡动相关法和测树学方法估算的生产力具有可比性。（2）2003-2004年碳通量季节变化趋势基本一致，从年初到4月上旬该森林生态系统保持较弱的正的碳通量（释放CO2），5月开始表现为净的碳吸收，且吸收量迅速增加，到6月达到最大值，然后又逐渐减小；9月末到10月末随着生长季的结束，净生态系统COZ交换（NEE）开始由负转为正，11-12月NEE为正，生态系统以呼吸为主。净生态系统COZ交换的年累计量表明长白山阔叶红松林为明显的碳汇，2003年和2004年净生态系统生产力NEP分别为-217±75gcm-2a-1和-190±85gcm-2a-1，相当于-2.17±0.75tCha-1a-1和-1.90±0.85tCha-1a-1。（3）根据经验公式和材积法得到阔汗卜红松林的生物量在343．9-362．3tha－l之间，应用两种方法得到2003一2004年群落的净初级生产力在10.22-10.40tCha-1a-1之间，净生态系统生产力在2.50±1.12tCha-1a-1-2.68±1.20tCha-1a-1之间。（4）测树学方法与涡动相关法测得的净生态系统生产力略有差异，但在误差有效范围内基本一致。

Carbon dioxide dynamics and controls in a deep-water wetland on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau

To initially characterize the dynamics and environmental controls of CO2, ecosystem CO2 fluxes were measured for different vegetation zones in a deep-water wetland on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau during the growing season of 2002. Four zones of vegetation along a gradient from shallow to deep water were dominated, respectively by the emergent species Carex allivescens V. Krez., Scirpus distigmaticus L., Hippuris vulgaris L., and the submerged species Potamogeton pectinatus L. Gross primary production (GPP), ecosystem respiration (Re), and net ecosystem production (NEP) were markedly different among the vegetation zones, with lower Re and GPP in deeper water. NEP was highest in the Scirpus-dominated zone with moderate water depth, but lowest in the Potamogeton-zone that occupied approximately 75% of the total wetland area. Diurnal variation in CO2 flux was highly correlated with variation in light intensity and soil temperature. The relationship between CO2 flux and these environmental variables varied among the vegetation zones. Seasonal CO2 fluxes, including GPP, Re, and NEP, were strongly correlated with aboveground biomass, which was in turn determined by water depth. In the early growing season, temperature sensitivity (Q(10)) for Re varied from 6.0 to 8.9 depending on vegetation zone. Q(10) decreased in the late growing season. Estimated NEP for the whole deep-water wetland over the growing season was 24 g C m(-2). Our results suggest that water depth is the major environmental control of seasonal variation in CO2 flux, whereas photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) controls diurnal dynamics.

The potential importance of grazing to the fluxes of carbon dioxide and methane in an alpine wetland on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau

To assess the impact of livestock grazing on the emission of greenhouse gases from grazed wetlands, we examined biomass growth of plants, CO2 and CH4 fluxes under grazing and non-grazing conditions on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau wetland. After the grazing treatment for a period of about 3 months, net ecosystem CO2 uptake and aboveground biomass were significantly smaller, but ecosystem CH4 emissions were remarkably greater, under grazing conditions than under non-grazing conditions. Examination of the gas-transport system showed that the increased CH4 emissions resulted from mainly the increase of conductance in the gas-transport system of the grazed plants. The sum of global warming potential, which was estimated from the measured CO2 and CH4 fluxes, was 5.6- to 11.3-fold higher under grazing conditions than under non-grazing conditions. The results suggest that livestock grazing may increase the global warming potential of the alpine wetlands. (c) 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Biodeposition and Biogeochemical Processes in Shallow, Mesohaline Sediments of Chesapeake Bay

Stocks of the eastern oyster, Crassostrea virginica, have been declining in Chesapeake Bay since the late 19th century, and current strategies involve restoring culture of Crassostrea virginica on-bottom and in devices suspended within the water column. Sub-tidal suspension culture of Crassostrea virginica in Chesapeake Bay occurs mostly in sheltered inlets and tidal creeks and, thereby, has the potential to influence shallow water biogeochemical processes. To assess the influence of Crassostrea virginica biodeposits and benthic microalgae on sediment nitrogen and phosphorus exchange, field studies with Crassostrea virginica held in aquaculture floats and laboratory experiments were conducted. Enhanced organic nitrogen deposition from Crassostrea virginica biodeposits led to gradual increases in surface sediment nitrogen and pore water ammonium concentrations; however, modifications to pore water concentrations were not always expressed at the sediment-water interface. Benthic microalgae often modulated the influence of biodeposits on sediment nitrogen exchange but, as observed in laboratory experiments, the supply of nitrogen from Crassostrea virginica biodeposits may exceed their biological demand. Organic carbon from biodeposits had varying influences on aerobic respiration but consistently stimulated anaerobic metabolism. Shifts in net phosphorus exchange were driven by this anaerobic remineralization and concentrations of iron and manganese oxy(hydr)oxides, with transitions in fluxes coinciding with changes in benthic photosynthesis and oxidation of surface sediments. Manganese and iron oxy(hydr)oxides from biodeposits supported incorporation of added phosphorus and prevented exchange at the sediment-water interface in the absence of iron-sulfide mineral formation. Differences in the response of shallow water sediments to Crassostrea virginica biodeposits were due to the quality and quantity of biodeposits supplied, as well as the spatial and temporal variability within these sediments. Initial conditions and corresponding reference sediments illustrated the potential for sediment biogeochemistry and nutrient exchange from tidal creek sediments to vary spatially and temporally on relatively small scales. Factors influencing variability within tidal creek sediments were related to shifts in riverine freshwater inputs, macroalgal blooms, nutrient concentrations in overlying waters, and bioirrigation from the clam, Macoma balthica.

Studies On Mixed Layer Depth In The Arabian Sea

This thesis is the result of an elaborate study on the mixed layer depth (MLD) and the various oceanic environmental factors controlling it in the Arabian Sea examining its predictability on annual and short term basis. To accomplish this, the study area between 100 — 250 N latitudes and 600 — 750 E longitudes in the Arabian Sea is divided into 8 subareas of 50 quadrangles. The distribution of monthly means of the surface wind field, net heat exchange mKi868€%WTmN¥tWMWF3UH9 (SST) over each subarea in the annual cycle is examined. The corresponding wind (mechanical) and convective mixing values are computed and presented along with the observed mean MLD for the subareas in the annual cycle. Effects of advection due to surface currents and surface divergence (convergence and divergence) for these subareas are examined for correlating the MLD variations. A representative time series data from typical deep water station under southwest monsoonal forcing is analysed for the spectral components to estimate the amplitude perturbations on the mean MLD variation

Impact of land cover uncertainties on estimates of biospheric carbon fluxes

Large-scale bottom-up estimates of terrestrial carbon fluxes, whether based on models or inventory, are highly dependent on the assumed land cover. Most current land cover and land cover change maps are based on satellite data and are likely to be so for the foreseeable future. However, these maps show large differences, both at the class level and when transformed into Plant Functional Types (PFTs), and these can lead to large differences in terrestrial CO2 fluxes estimated by Dynamic Vegetation Models. In this study the Sheffield Dynamic Global Vegetation Model is used. We compare PFT maps and the resulting fluxes arising from the use of widely available moderate (1 km) resolution satellite-derived land cover maps (the Global Land Cover 2000 and several MODIS classification schemes), with fluxes calculated using a reference high (25 m) resolution land cover map specific to Great Britain (the Land Cover Map 2000). We demonstrate that uncertainty is introduced into carbon flux calculations by (1) incorrect or uncertain assignment of land cover classes to PFTs; (2) information loss at coarser resolutions; (3) difficulty in discriminating some vegetation types from satellite data. When averaged over Great Britain, modeled CO2 fluxes derived using the different 1 km resolution maps differ from estimates made using the reference map. The ranges of these differences are 254 gC m−2 a−1 in Gross Primary Production (GPP); 133 gC m−2 a−1 in Net Primary Production (NPP); and 43 gC m−2 a−1 in Net Ecosystem Production (NEP). In GPP this accounts for differences of −15.8% to 8.8%. Results for living biomass exhibit a range of 1109 gC m−2. The types of uncertainties due to land cover confusion are likely to be representative of many parts of the world, especially heterogeneous landscapes such as those found in western Europe.

Changing climate and the Irish landscape

The impacts of current and future changes in climate have been investigated for Irish vegetation. Warming has been observed over the last two decades, with impacts that are also strongly influenced by natural oscillations of the surrounding ocean, seen as fluctuations in the North Atlantic Oscillation and the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation. Satellite observations show that vegetation greenness increases in warmer years, a feature mirrored by increases in net ecosystem production observed for a grassland and a plantation forest. An ensemble of general circulation model simulations of future climates indicate temperature rises over the twenty-first century ranging from 1°C to 7°C, depending on future scenarios of greenhouse gas emissions. Net primary production is simulated to increase under all scenarios, due to the positive impacts of rising temperature, a modest rise of precipitation and rising carbon dioxide concentrations. In an optimistic scenario of reducing future emissions, CO2 concentration is simulated to flatten from about 2070, although temperatures continue to increase. Under this scenario Ireland could become a source of carbon, whereas under all other emission scenarios Ireland is a sink for carbon that may increase by up to three-fold over the twenty-first century. A likely and unavoidable impact of changing climate is the arrival of alien plant species, which may disrupt ecosystems and exert negative impacts on native biodiversity. Alien species arrive continually, with about 250 dated arrivals in the twentieth century. A simulation model indicates that this rate of alien arrival may increase by anything between two and ten times, dependent on the future climatic scenario, by 2050. Which alien species may become severely disruptive is, however, not known.