O léxico da apicultura e da melinponicultura no Brasil: limites e flexibilidade para sua fixação em um dicionário terminológico

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES)

Bioprospecção de leveduras fermentadoras de xilose visando a produção de etanol a partir de bagaço de cana-de-açúcar

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES)

Antioxidant activity of apple extract protects against rat tongue carcinogenesis induced by 4-nitroquinoline 1-oxide

Several studies have shown that apple (Malus sp.) has many components able to exert chemopreventive activity. The aim of this study was to evaluate the chemopreventive potential of apple extract following medium-term oral carcinogenesis assay induced by 4-nitroquinoline 1-oxide (4NQO) by means of histopathological analysis and gene expression of antioxidant enzymes, such as CuZnSOD, MnSOD and catalase. A total of 30 male Wistar rats were distributed into five groups, as follows (n = 6 per group): Group 1 - negative control group (non-treated group); Group 2 - received 4NQO during 8 weeks in drinking water and treated with apple extract by gavage between the 1st and 4th weeks daily (initiation phase); Group 3 - received 4NQO for 8 weeks in drinking water and treated with apple extract by gavage between the 5th and 8th weeks daily (promotion phase); Group 4 - received apple extract by gavage for eight consecutive weeks only; and Group 5 - received 4NQO for 8 weeks in drinking water daily. Histopathological analysis revealed that apple extract protect oral lesions induced by 4NQO at initiation or promotion phase. Higher gene expression of CuZnSOD and MnSOD enzymes were noticed in groups treated with apple extract as well. Taken together, our results demonstrate that the apple extract is able to modulate medium-term oral carcinogenesis assay as a result of antioxidant activity.

Isotope analysis method (δ¹³C) in clarified apple juice

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Cuticle of 'Gala' and 'Galaxy' Apples Cultivars under Different Environmental Conditions

This study aimed to analyze the cuticle thickness and pattern of epicuticular wax deposition in 'Gala' and 'Galaxy' apple cultivars (Malus domestica Borkh,) from three Brazilian producing areas: Vacaria (RS), Fraiburgo (SC) and Sao Joaquim (SC) with altitudes of 971, 1,048 and 1,353m, respectively. Harvested fruit were kept under two storage conditions: regular atmosphere (RA) (0 degrees C and 90% RH) and controlled atmosphere (CA) (1.5% O-2, 2.5% CO2, 0 degrees C and 90% RH). Cuticle thickness measurements were made using LM and the deposition pattern of epicuticular wax observed with a SEM. Altitude among the apple producing areas was not a factor in deposition pattern of waxes between the cultivars but at higher altitudes, the cuticle was thicker in both the cultivars. In the freshly-harvested fruits, waxes deposition in the form of platelets and the mechanism of "tear and repair" were observed. Severity of microcracks in the cuticle was more evident on the fruits from CA.

Cuticle of 'Gala' and 'Galaxy' apples cultivars under different environmental conditions

This study aimed to analyze the cuticle thickness and pattern of epicuticular wax deposition in 'Gala' and 'Galaxy' apple cultivars (Malus domestica Borkh,) from three Brazilian producing areas: Vacaria (RS), Fraiburgo (SC) and São Joaquim (SC) with altitudes of 971, 1,048 and 1,353m, respectively. Harvested fruit were kept under two storage conditions: regular atmosphere (RA) (0 ºC and 90% RH) and controlled atmosphere (CA) (1.5% O2, 2.5% CO2, 0ºC and 90% RH). Cuticle thickness measurements were made using LM and the deposition pattern of epicuticular wax observed with a SEM. Altitude among the apple producing areas was not a factor in deposition pattern of waxes between the cultivars but at higher altitudes, the cuticle was thicker in both the cultivars. In the freshly-harvested fruits, waxes deposition in the form of platelets and the mechanism of tear and repair were observed. Severity of microcracks in the cuticle was more evident on the fruits from CA.

Studio molecolare dei meccanismi dell'autoincompatibilità gametofitica in pero europeo (Pyrus communis)

Self-incompatibility (SI) systems have evolved in many flowering plants to prevent self-fertilization and thus promote outbreeding. Pear and apple, as many of the species belonging to the Rosaceae, exhibit RNase-mediated gametophytic self-incompatibility, a widespread system carried also by the Solanaceae and Plantaginaceae. Pear orchards must for this reason contain at least two different cultivars that pollenize each other; to guarantee an efficient cross-pollination, they should have overlapping flowering periods and must be genetically compatible. This compatibility is determined by the S-locus, containing at least two genes encoding for a female (pistil) and a male (pollen) determinant. The female determinant in the Rosaceae, Solanaceae and Plantaginaceae system is a stylar glycoprotein with ribonuclease activity (S-RNase), that acts as a specific cytotoxin in incompatible pollen tubes degrading cellular RNAs. Since its identification, the S-RNase gene has been intensively studied and the sequences of a large number of alleles are available in online databases. On the contrary, the male determinant has been only recently identified as a pollen-expressed protein containing a F-box motif, called S-Locus F-box (abbreviated SLF or SFB). Since F-box proteins are best known for their participation to the SCF (Skp1 - Cullin - F-box) E3 ubiquitine ligase enzymatic complex, that is involved in protein degradation through the 26S proteasome pathway, the male determinant is supposed to act mediating the ubiquitination of the S-RNases, targeting them for the degradation in compatible pollen tubes. Attempts to clone SLF/SFB genes in the Pyrinae produced no results until very recently; in apple, the use of genomic libraries allowed the detection of two F-box genes linked to each S haplotype, called SFBB (S-locus F-Box Brothers). In Japanese pear, three SFBB genes linked to each haplotype were cloned from pollen cDNA. The SFBB genes exhibit S haplotype-specific sequence divergence and pollen-specific expression; their multiplicity is a feature whose interpretation is unclear: it has been hypothesized that all of them participate in the S-specific interaction with the RNase, but it is also possible that only one of them is involved in this function. Moreover, even if the S locus male and female determinants are the only responsible for the specificity of the pollen-pistil recognition, many other factors are supposed to play a role in GSI; these are not linked to the S locus and act in a S-haplotype independent manner. They can have a function in regulating the expression of S determinants (group 1 factors), modulating their activity (group 2) or acting downstream, in the accomplishment of the reaction of acceptance or rejection of the pollen tube (group 3). This study was aimed to the elucidation of the molecular mechanism of GSI in European pear (Pyrus communis) as well as in the other Pyrinae; it was divided in two parts, the first focusing on the characterization of male determinants, and the second on factors external to the S locus. The research of S locus F-box genes was primarily aimed to the identification of such genes in European pear, for which sequence data are still not available; moreover, it allowed also to investigate about the S locus structure in the Pyrinae. The analysis was carried out on a pool of varieties of the three species Pyrus communis (European pear), Pyrus pyrifolia (Japanese pear), and Malus × domestica (apple); varieties carrying S haplotypes whose RNases are highly similar were chosen, in order to check whether or not the same level of similarity is maintained also between the male determinants. A total of 82 sequences was obtained, 47 of which represent the first S-locus F-box genes sequenced from European pear. The sequence data strongly support the hypothesis that the S locus structure is conserved among the three species, and presumably among all the Pyrinae; at least five genes have homologs in the analysed S haplotypes, but the number of F-box genes surrounding the S-RNase could be even greater. The high level of sequence divergence and the similarity between alleles linked to highly conserved RNases, suggest a shared ancestral polymorphism also for the F-box genes. The F-box genes identified in European pear were mapped on a segregating population of 91 individuals from the cross 'Abbé Fétel' × 'Max Red Bartlett'. All the genes were placed on the linkage group 17, where the S locus has been placed both in pear and apple maps, and resulted strongly associated to the S-RNase gene. The linkage with the RNase was perfect for some of the F-box genes, while for others very rare single recombination events were identified. The second part of this study was focused on the research of other genes involved in the SI response in pear; it was aimed on one side to the identification of genes differentially expressed in compatible and incompatible crosses, and on the other to the cloning and characterization of the transglutaminase (TGase) gene, whose role may be crucial in pollen rejection. For the identification of differentially expressed genes, controlled pollinations were carried out in four combinations (self pollination, incompatible, half-compatible and fully compatible cross-pollination); expression profiles were compared through cDNA-AFLP. 28 fragments displaying an expression pattern related to compatibility or incompatibility were identified, cloned and sequenced; the sequence analysis allowed to assign a putative annotation to a part of them. The identified genes are involved in very different cellular processes or in defense mechanisms, suggesting a very complex change in gene expression following the pollen/pistil recognition. The pool of genes identified with this technique offers a good basis for further study toward a better understanding of how the SI response is carried out. Among the factors involved in SI response, moreover, an important role may be played by transglutaminase (TGase), an enzyme involved both in post-translational protein modification and in protein cross-linking. The TGase activity detected in pear styles was significantly higher when pollinated in incompatible combinations than in compatible ones, suggesting a role of this enzyme in the abnormal cytoskeletal reorganization observed during pollen rejection reaction. The aim of this part of the work was thus to identify and clone the pear TGase gene; the PCR amplification of fragments of this gene was achieved using primers realized on the alignment between the Arabidopsis TGase gene sequence and several apple EST fragments; the full-length coding sequence of the pear TGase gene was then cloned from cDNA, and provided a precious tool for further study of the in vitro and in vivo action of this enzyme.

Influence of climate changes on cross allergies: possible involvement of pollen transglutaminase

Allergies are a complex of symptoms derived from altered IgE-mediated reactions of the immune system towards substances known as allergens. Allergic sensibilization can be of food or respiratory origin and, in particular, apple and hazelnut allergens have been identified in pollens or fruits. Allergic cross-reactivity can occur in a patient reacting to similar allergens from different origins, justifying the research in both systems as in Europe a greater number of people suffers from apple fruit allergy, but little evidence exists about pollen. Apple fruit allergies are due to four different classes of allergens (Mal d 1, 2, 3, 4), whose allergenicity is related both to genotype and tissue specificity; therefore I have investigated their presence also in pollen at different time of germination to clarify the apple pollen allergenic potential. I have observed that the same four classes of allergens found in fruit are expressed at different levels also in pollen, and their presence might support that the apple pollen can be considered allergenic as the fruit, deducing that apple allergy could also be indirectly caused by sensitization to pollen. Climate changes resulting from increases in temperature and air pollution influence pollen allergenicity, responsible for the dramatic raise in respiratory allergies (hay fever, bronchial asthma, conjunctivitis). Although the link between climate change and pollen allergenicity is proven, the underlying mechanism is little understood. Transglutaminases (TGases), a class of enzymes able to post-translationally modify proteins, are activated under stress and involved in some inflammatory responses, enhancing the activity of pro-inflammatory phospholipase A2, suggesting a role in allergies. Recently, a calcium-dependent TGase activity has been identified in the pollen cell wall, raising the possibility that pollen TGase may have a role in the modification of pollen allergens reported above, thus stabilizing them against proteases. This enzyme can be involved also in the transamidation of proteins present in the human mucosa interacting with surface pollen or, finally, the enzyme itself can represent an allergen, as suggested by studies on celiac desease. I have hypothesized that this pollen enzyme can be affected by climate changes and be involved in exhacerbating allergy response. The data presented in this thesis represent a scientific basis for future development of studies devoted to verify the hypothesis set out here. First, I have demonstrated the presence of an extracellular TGase on the surface of the grain observed either at the apical or the proximal parts of the pollen-tube by laser confocal microscopy (Iorio et al., 2008), that plays an essential role in apple pollen-tube growth, as suggested by the arrest of tube elongation by TGase inhibitors, such as EGTA or R281. Its involvement in pollen tube growth is mainly confirmed by the data of activity and gene expression, because TGase showed a peak between 15 min and 30 min of germination, when this process is well established, and an optimal pH around 6.5, which is close to that recorded for the germination medium. Moreover, data show that pollen TGase can be a glycoprotein as the glycosylation profile is linked both with the activation of the enzyme and with its localization at the pollen cell wall during germination, because from the data presented seems that the active form of TGase involved in pollen tube growth and pollen-stylar interaction is more exposed and more weakly bound to the cell wall. Interestingly, TGase interacts with fibronectin (FN), a putative SAMs or psECM component, inducing possibly intracellular signal transduction during the interaction between pollen-stylar occuring in the germination process, since a protein immunorecognised by anti-FN antibody is also present in pollen, in particular at the level of pollen grain cell wall in a punctuate pattern, but also along the shank of the pollen tube wall, in a similar pattern that recalls the signal obtained with the antibody anti TGase. FN represents a good substrate for the enzyme activity, better than DMC usually used as standard substrate for animal TGase. Thus, this pollen enzyme, necessary for its germination, is exposed on the pollen surface and consequently can easily interact with mucosal proteins, as it has been found germinated pollen in studies conducted on human mucus (Forlani, personal communication). I have obtained data that TGase activity increases in a very remarkable way when pollen is exposed to stressful conditions, such as climate changes and environmental pollution. I have used two different species of pollen, an aero allergenic (hazelnut, Corylus avellana) pollen, whose allergenicity is well documented, and an enthomophylus (apple, Malus domestica) pollen, which is not yet well characterized, to compare data on their mechanism of action in response to stressors. The two pollens have been exposed to climate changes (different temperatures, relative humidity (rH), acid rain at pH 5.6 and copper pollution (3.10 µg/l)) and showed an increase in pollen surface TGase activity that is not accompanied to an induced expression of TGase immunoreactive protein with AtPNG1p. Probably, climate change induce an alteration or damage to pollen cell wall that carries the pollen grains to release their content in the medium including TGase enzyme, that can be free to carry out its function as confirmed by the immunolocalisation and by the in situ TGase activity assay data; morphological examination indicated pollen damage, viability significantly reduced and in acid rain conditions an early germination of apple pollen, thus possibly enhancing the TGase exposure on pollen surface. Several pollen proteins were post-translationally modified, as well as mammalian sPLA2 especially with Corylus pollen, which results in its activation, potentially altering pollen allergenicity and inflammation. Pollen TGase activity mimicked the behaviour of gpl TGase and AtPNG1p in the stimulation of sPLA2, even if the regulatory mechanism seems different to gpl TGase, because pollen TGase favours an intermolecular cross-linking between various molecules of sPLA2, giving rise to high-molecular protein networks normally more stable. In general, pollens exhibited a significant endogenous phospholipase activity and it has been observed differences according to the allergenic (Corylus) or not-well characterized allergenic (Malus) attitude of the pollen. However, even if with a different intensity level in activation, pollen enzyme share the ability to activate the sPLA2, thus suggesting an important regulatory role for the activation of a key enzyme of the inflammatory response, among which my interest was addressed to pollen allergy. In conclusion, from all the data presented, mainly presence of allergens, presence of an extracellular TGase, increasing in its activity following exposure to environmental pollution and PLA2 activation, I can conclude that also Malus pollen can behave as potentially allergenic. The mechanisms described here that could affect the allergenicity of pollen, maybe could be the same occurring in fruit, paving the way for future studies in the identification of hyper- and hypo- allergenic cultivars, in preventing environmental stressor effects and, possibly, in the production of transgenic plants.

Transkriptom des Meristemgewebes des Kolumnarapfels

Kolumnare Apfelbäume (Malus x domestica) stellen aufgrund ihres auffälligen Phänotyps eine ökonomisch interessante Wuchsform dar. Diese extreme Form des Kurztriebwuchses zeichnet sich durch einen insgesamt sehr schlanken, säulenförmigen Habitus aus, welcher eine dichte Pflanzung und damit einhergehend Ertragssteigerungen im Vergleich zu normalwüchsigen Bäumen ermöglicht. Verursacht wird der Phänotyp durch die Anwesenheit eines einzelnen, dominanten Allels des Columnar (Co)-Gens. Bis auf die approximative Lokalisation des Gens auf Chromosom 10 ist über mögliche Identität und Funktion bislang nichts bekannt.rnIn der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde ein erster Versuch unternommen, mit Hilfe von Next Generation Sequencing (NGS) Technologien und RNA-Seq Einblicke in das Transkriptom des Sprossapikalmeristems (SAM) kolumnarer Apfelbäume zu gewinnen. So konnte gezeigt werden, dass unabhängig vom Zeitpunkt der Entnahme des Materials mehrere hundert Gene differentiell reguliert werden. Diese lassen sich funktional in mehrere überrepräsentierte Kategorien gruppieren, von denen sich einige wiederum mit dem kolumnaren Phänotyp assoziieren lassen. Durch den Einsatz weiterer Expressionsstudien (Microarrays, qRT-PCR) konnten frühere Ergebnisse bezüglich des Hormonhaushalts auf Genebene bestätigt und neue Erkenntnisse gewonnen werden, die eine mögliche Erklärung für den Phänotyp darstellen. Weiterhin ergab der Vergleich aller durchgeführten Expressionsstudien eine Anreicherung signifikant differentiell regulierter Gene auf Chromosom 10, was auf einen „selective sweep“ hindeutet. Eine potentielle epigenetische Regulation dieser Gene durch das Genprodukt von Co könnte daher möglich sein. Mehr als die Hälfte dieser Gene lassen sich darüber hinaus aufgrund ihrer Funktion direkt mit dem kolumnaren Phänotyp assoziieren.rnDiese Ergebnisse zeigen, dass die Anwesenheit des Co-Allels massive Veränderungen in der Genregulation des SAMs mit sich bringt, wobei einige dieser differentiell regulierten Gene mit großer Wahrscheinlichkeit an der Etablierung des kolumnaren Phänotyps beteiligt sind. Auch wenn die Funktion des Co-Genproduktes nicht abschließend geklärt werden konnte, sind doch anhand der Resultate schlüssige Hypothesen diesbezüglich möglich.rn

Optimierung von Transformationsprotokollen und Entwicklung von SSR-Markern für das Kolumnarwachstum beim Apfel

Ziel war es, molekularbiologische Untersuchungen zum Kolumnarwachstum des Apfels durchzuführen. Anhand Sequenzdaten des ‘Golden Delicious’ Genoms (Velasco et al. 2010) wurden drei neue SSR Marker entwickelt. Sie konnten bei untersuchten Geisenheimer Nachkommenschaften zuverlässig den Kolumnarwuchs auf DNA-Ebene detektieren. Zusätzlich wurden von Bai et al. (2012) veröffentlichte Marker untersucht. Die von Bai et al. (2012) gefundenen Grenzen des co-Lokus konnten in dieser Arbeit anhand der Geisenheimer Nachkommenschaften nicht bestätigt werden. Die „linke“ Begrenzung der co-Region wird nach Untersuchungen dieser Arbeit am ehesten von dem Marker Mdo.chr10.11 (Moriya et al. 2012) bei 18,757 Mbp definiert. Die „rechte“ Begrenzung der co-Region wird vermutlich von den Markern Co04R13 (Baldi et al. 2012) und C1753-3520 (Bai et al. 2012) bei 18,905 Mbp definiert, wodurch die potentielle co-Region auf 148 kb auf Chromosom 10 eingegrenzt werden könnte. Für Funktionsanalysen möglicher Kandidatengene des co-Gens wurde ein Agrobakterien-vermitteltes Transformationssystem für die Geisenheimer Apfelselektionen ‘A 14’ und ‘Procats 28’ adaptiert. Zusätzlich wurde der bereits in der Literatur als transformierbar beschriebene Genotyp ‘Jonagold’ (Viss et al. 2003) transformiert. Bei Transformationen der Apfelselektion ‘A 14’ gelang es, transgene Zellen an den Explantaten, am Kallusgewebe und an den Regeneraten zu erzeugen. Bei Transformationen von ‘Jonagold’ wurde ein fast vollständig transgenes Regenerat erzeugt.

Bias associated with detrital zircon geochronology and thermochronometry

Detrital studies that utilize zircon U–Pb geochronology and fission-track (FT) thermochronometry are subject to a range of potential sources of bias that should be properly evaluated and minimized. Some of them are common to any single-grain mineral analysis (e.g., variable bedrock mineral fertility, hydraulic sorting during transport, selective grain loss during sample processing), whereas others are intrinsic to zircon, and are related to radiation damage and age discordance. In this article, we quantify the impact of intrinsic bias on detrital studies thanks to the analysis of modern detritus shed from the European Alps, and illustrate the general implications on geological interpretations. We show that detrital zircon U–Pb age distributions based on statistically robust datasets are highly reproducible and representative of the parent bedrock ages in the catchment. Arbitrary or selective removal of discordant grain ages can be minimized by using the Kolmogorov–Smirnov test to identify an appropriate cutoff level. Loss of metamict (α-damaged) zircon has a minor impact on data representativeness, and is mainly controlled by regional metamorphism rather than by mechanical abrasion during river transport. Zircon FT grain-age distributions were found to have poor reproducibility, although age spectra are consistent with bedrock data. However, unlike the U–Pb datasets, U-rich zircon grains (> 1000 ppm) are systematically missed, and undatable grains may exceed 50%. We identify two major sources of distribution bias specific to zircon FT datasets: (i) sediment sources dominated by U-rich zircon grains are markedly underrepresented in the detrital record, because such grains often have uncountable high densities of fission tracks (“U concentration bias”); (ii) sediment sources that shed zircon grains with high levels of α-damage are underrepresented, because these grains are lost during chemical etching for FT revelation (“etching bias”). In the case of multimethod dating on the same grains (e.g., FT and U–Pb double dating), bias affecting detrital zircon FT dating propagates to the entire dataset. These effects may not impact on exhumation-rate studies that utilize the youngest grain ages (i.e., lag-time approach). However, they represent a limiting factor for conventional provenance studies, and generally preclude application of zircon FT dating to sediment budget calculations.

A systematic review of the evidence for use of herbal medicine for the treatment of acute diarrhea

Background. Acute diarrhea (AD) is an important cause of morbidity and mortality among both children and adults. An ideal antidiarrheal treatment should be safe, effective, compatible with Oral Rehydration Solution, and inexpensive. Herbal medicines, if effective, should fit these criteria as well or better than standard treatment. ^ Objective. The objective of the present study was to assess the effectiveness of plant preparations in patients with AD in reports of randomized and non-randomized controlled trials. ^ Aims. The aims of the present study were to identify effective antidiarrheal herbs and to identify potential antidiarrheal herbs for future studies of efficacy through well designed clinical trials in human populations. ^ Methods. Nineteen published studies of herbal management of AD were examined to identify effective plant preparations. Ten plant preparations including Berberine (Berberis aristata), tormentil root ( Potentialla tormentilla), baohauhau (from the baobaosan plant), carob (Ceratonia siliqua), pectin (Malus domestica), wood creosote (Creosote bush), guava (Psidium guajava L.), belladonna (Atropa belladonna), white bean (Phaseolis vulgaris), and wheat (Triticum aestivum) were identified. ^ Results. Qualitative data analysis of nineteen clinical trials indicated berberine’s potentially valuable antisecretory effects against diarrhea caused by Vibrio cholerae and enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli. Tormentil root showed significant efficacy against rotavirus-induced diarrhea; carob exhibited antidiarrheal properties not only by acting to detoxify and constipate but by providing a rich source of calories; guava and belladonna are antispasmodics and have been shown to relieve the symptoms of AD. Finally, white bean and wheat yielded favorable clinical and dietary outcomes in children with diarrhea. ^ Conclusion. The present study is the first to review the evidence for use of herbal compounds for treatment of AD. Future randomized controlled trials are needed to evaluate their efficacy and safety.^

Variación de la concentración de nitratos en un suelo franco limoso del Alto Valle de Río Negro.

La abundancia y bajo costo del recurso hídrico en el Alto Valle de Río Negro combinados con un manejo ineficiente del mismo, principalmente durante la primera parte de la primavera, época en la que los productores riegan con mayor frecuencia para luchar pasivamente contra las probables heladas tardías, permiten inferir que los nitratos presentes en el suelo, así como el aportado por los fertilizantes nitrogenados, están sujetos al lixiviado durante una gran parte del ciclo productivo. En la actualidad no existen estudios regionales que ilustren la variación estacional de la concentración de nitratos en la zona de exploración radical de frutales, por lo que se inició el presente trabajo con el propósito de: a) medir la concentración de los nitratos en el perfil del suelo cultivado con manzanos, desde el período de floración hasta el inicio de caída de hojas, con fertilización nitrogenada en dos dosis y sin fertilización a distintas profundidades de extracción; b) determinar la eficiencia del riego a manto de dicho monte. Se ensayaron dos concentraciones de nitrógeno, adicionado como nitrato de amonio en dos oportunidades: el 50% a la caída de los pétalos y el 50% restante cercano a la cosecha, correspondiendo a dosis de 100 kg ha-1 (N1), 200 kg ha-1 (N2) y un testigo sin agregado de N (N0), durante el período 2004-2005 y 2005-2006. Para determinar los niveles de N en el suelo, expresado como nitratos, se extrajeron muestras del mismo a tres profundidades 0-30; 30-60; 60-90 cm, al inicio de floración, antes del primer riego y después de cada riego. La lámina de agua empleada para el riego a manto osciló entre 1712 y 2400 mm, con un aprovechamiento a campo del 30%. La concentración de nitratos fue baja cuando no se fertilizó, manteniéndose alrededor de 22 mg kg-1 en superficie y reduciéndose a la mitad a la profundidad de 30-60 cm, durante el período de muestreo. En ambas dosis empleadas, el contenido de nitratos del suelo fue mayor llegando a 175 y 300 mg kg-1, respectivamente. Estos valores se igualan a los del testigo a los 30 días en el caso de N1 y a los 60 días para N2. Los resultados permiten inferir que la concentración de nitratos fue efímera en el perfil del suelo y mejoró la eficiencia de riego, principalmente durante la primavera con el fin de minimizar pérdidas de nitrógeno.

Sarna del manzano : detección de la forma sexual (Venturia inaequalis ) en Mendoza (Argentina)

El aumento de los daños provocados por la sarna del manzano [Fusicladium dendritichum (Wallr.) Fuckl.] en montes frutales de Mendoza (Argentina), motivó estudios para aclarar la biología del hongo y buscar la presencia de la forma sexual, no detectada aún en la provincia. Al momento de la brotación se muestrearon hojas del año anterior que se encontraban en el suelo de dichos montes. En el laboratorio fueron observadas bajo estereomicroscopio. Los cuerpos negros inmersos en el tejido de la hoja fueron montados en preparados microscópicos y observados para establecer su identidad. Se confirmó la presencia en la zona de la forma teleomórfica del agente causal de la sarna del manzano. Este hecho tiene importancia en la epidemiología de la enfermedad y en las estrategias de control.