Optimierung von Transformationsprotokollen und Entwicklung von SSR-Markern für das Kolumnarwachstum beim Apfel

Ziel war es, molekularbiologische Untersuchungen zum Kolumnarwachstum des Apfels durchzuführen. Anhand Sequenzdaten des ‘Golden Delicious’ Genoms (Velasco et al. 2010) wurden drei neue SSR Marker entwickelt. Sie konnten bei untersuchten Geisenheimer Nachkommenschaften zuverlässig den Kolumnarwuchs auf DNA-Ebene detektieren. Zusätzlich wurden von Bai et al. (2012) veröffentlichte Marker untersucht. Die von Bai et al. (2012) gefundenen Grenzen des co-Lokus konnten in dieser Arbeit anhand der Geisenheimer Nachkommenschaften nicht bestätigt werden. Die „linke“ Begrenzung der co-Region wird nach Untersuchungen dieser Arbeit am ehesten von dem Marker Mdo.chr10.11 (Moriya et al. 2012) bei 18,757 Mbp definiert. Die „rechte“ Begrenzung der co-Region wird vermutlich von den Markern Co04R13 (Baldi et al. 2012) und C1753-3520 (Bai et al. 2012) bei 18,905 Mbp definiert, wodurch die potentielle co-Region auf 148 kb auf Chromosom 10 eingegrenzt werden könnte. Für Funktionsanalysen möglicher Kandidatengene des co-Gens wurde ein Agrobakterien-vermitteltes Transformationssystem für die Geisenheimer Apfelselektionen ‘A 14’ und ‘Procats 28’ adaptiert. Zusätzlich wurde der bereits in der Literatur als transformierbar beschriebene Genotyp ‘Jonagold’ (Viss et al. 2003) transformiert. Bei Transformationen der Apfelselektion ‘A 14’ gelang es, transgene Zellen an den Explantaten, am Kallusgewebe und an den Regeneraten zu erzeugen. Bei Transformationen von ‘Jonagold’ wurde ein fast vollständig transgenes Regenerat erzeugt.

Etablierung transgener BY-2-Zelllinien zur In-vivo-Lokalisierung pflanzlicher Cytoskelettproteine

Bei den Pflanzen sind viele Fragen bezüglich der Organisation und Regulation des bei der Zellteilung und differenzierung wichtigen Auf-, Ab- und Umbaus des Mikrotubuli-Netzwerkes noch immer offen, insbesondere was die Rolle des γ-Tubulins betrifft. Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit war die Etablierung von BY-2 Modell-Zelllinien (Nicotiana), die verschiedene mit fluoreszierenden Proteinen (FP) markierte Elemente des Cytoskeletts exprimieren, um eine fluoreszenzmikroskopische Detektion in vivo zu ermöglichen.rnAls Grundlage für alle weiteren Versuche wurde eine zuverlässige Methode zur A. tumefaciens vermittelten stabilen Transfektion von BY-2 Zellen erarbeitet. Für die Expression von FP-markierten Cytoskelettproteinen, wurden entsprechende Fusionskonstrukte kloniert und via A. tumefaciens in BY-2 Zellen transferiert. So gelang zunächst die Herstellung transgener Zelllinien, die GFP-markiertes α- bzw. γ-Tubulin exprimierten. Diese sollten später als Basis für die Untersuchung des dynamischen Mikrotubuli-Netzwerkes bzw. dessen Regulation dienen. In beiden Zelllinien standen die Konstrukte zunächst unter Kontrolle eines doppelten 35S-Promotors, was zu einer starken, konstitutiven Expression der Transgene führte. Fluoreszenzmikroskopisch konnten Strukturen, an deren Aufbau Mikrotubuli beteiligt sind, detektiert werden. Aufgrund einer starken Hintergrundfluoreszenz, vermutlich bedingt durch die konstitutive Überexpression, war die Darstellung feinerer Bereiche, wie sie im Cytoskelett häufig auftreten, jedoch äußerst schwierig. Deshalb wurde eine schwächere bzw. adäquate Expressionsrate angestrebt. rnPhysiologische Expressionsraten sollten vor allem durch den endogenen γ-Tubulin-Promotor ermöglicht werden. Da die entsprechende Sequenz noch unbekannt war, wurde sie zunächst bestimmt und in ein passendes Konstrukt integriert. Fluoreszenzmikroskopische Untersuchungen der resultierenden Zelllinie ließen auf eine stark reduzierte Expressionsrate schließen. Tatsächlich war die Detektion von Cytoskelettstrukturen, wenn überhaupt, erst bei deutlich längeren Belichtungszeiten möglich. Bedingt durch die langen Belichtungszeiten wurde die Dokumentation durch eine latente pflanzentypische Autofluoreszenz der Zellen erschwert. Auch wenn hier keine detailreicheren Aufnahmen der Cytoskelettstrukturen möglich waren, ist die Zellkultur für weiterführende Untersuchungen, z.B. in Studien bezüglich des zeitlichen Expressionsmusters des γ-Tubulins, potentiell geeignet. Der Einsatz eines sensibleren Mikroskopsystems ist allerdings erforderlich. rnUm klären zu können, inwieweit γ-Tubulin mit den Mikrotubuli co-lokalisiert, wurden Zelllinien benötigt, bei denen die entsprechenden Elemente unterschiedlich markiert waren. Zu diesem Zweck wurde der Einsatz von RFP-markiertem Tubulin getestet. Eine deutliche Überexpression von RFP alleine war möglich. Trotz mehrfacher Wiederholung der Versuche war aber keine Expression von RFP-markiertem α-Tubulin in BY-2 Zellen zur Visualisierung der Mikrotubuli detektierbar. Die DNA-Sequenzen waren im Genom nachweisbar, eine Transkription jedoch nicht. Möglicherweise spielten hier gene silencing Effekte eine Rolle. Das verwendete RFP (TagRFP) und GFP stammten aus unterschiedlichen Organismen, aus einer Seeanemone bzw. einer Qualle. Eine Lösung könnte der Austausch des TagRFP durch ein Quallen-Derivat, das in einer von grün unterscheidbaren Farbe fluoresziert, bringen. Da bereits BY-2 Zelllinien vorliegen, die GFP-markiertes α- bzw. γ-Tubulin exprimieren, sollte es, nach Klonieren eines entsprechenden Konstruktes, zeitnah möglich sein, eine doppelt transfizierte Zelllinie herzustellen.

The intracellular parasite Theileria parva protects infected T cells from apoptosis.

Parasites have evolved a plethora of strategies to ensure their survival. The intracellular parasite Theileria parva secures its propagation and spreads through the infected animal by infecting and transforming T cells, inducing their continuous proliferation and rendering them metastatic. In previous work, we have shown that the parasite induces constitutive activation of the transcription factor NF-kappaB, by inducing the constitutive degradation of its cytoplasmic inhibitors. The biological significance of NF-kappaB activation in T. parva-infected cells, however, has not yet been defined. Cells that have been transformed by viruses or oncogenes can persist only if they manage to avoid destruction by the apoptotic mechanisms that are activated on transformation and that contribute to maintain cellular homeostasis. We now demonstrate that parasite-induced NF-kappaB activation plays a crucial role in the survival of T. parva-transformed T cells by conveying protection against an apoptotic signal that accompanies parasite-mediated transformation. Consequently, inhibition of NF-kappaB nuclear translocation and the expression of dominant negative mutant forms of components of the NF-kappaB activation pathway, such as IkappaBalpha or p65, prompt rapid apoptosis of T. parva-transformed T cells. Our findings offer important insights into parasite survival strategies and demonstrate that parasite-induced constitutive NF-kappaB activation is an essential step in maintaining the transformed phenotype of the infected cells.

Function of C1A barley peptidases and their inhibitors (cystatins) in barley seed germination : Funcion de las peptidasas C1A de cebada y sus inhibidores (cistatinas) en la germinacion de la semilla

Plant proteolysis is a metabolic process where specific enzymes called peptidases degrade proteins. In plants, this complex process involves broad metabolic networks and different sub-cellular compartments. Several types of peptidases take part in the proteolytic process, mainly cysteine-, serine-, aspartyl- and metallo- peptidases. Among the cysteine-peptidases, the papain-like or C1A peptidases (family C1, clan CA) are extensively present in land plants and are classified into catepsins L-, B-, H- and Flike. The catalytic mechanism of these C1A peptidases is highly conserved and involves the three amino acids Cys, His and Asn in the catalytic triad, and a Gln residue which seems essential for maintaining an active enzyme conformation. These proteins are synthesized as inactive precursors, which comprise an N-terminal signal peptide, a propeptide, and the mature protein. In barley, we have identified 33 cysteine-peptidases from the papain-like family, classifying them into 8 different groups. Five of them corresponded to cathepsins L-like (5 subgroups), 1 cathepsin B-like group, 1 cathepsin F-like group and 1 cathepsin H-like group. Besides, C1A peptidases are the specific targets of the plant proteinaceous inhibitors known as phytocystatins (PhyCys). The cystatin inhibitory mechanism is produced by a tight and reversible interaction with their target enzymes. In barley, the cystatin gene family is comprised by 13 members. In this work we have tried to elucidate the role of the C1A cysteine-peptidases and their specific inhibitors (cystatins) in the germination process of the barley grain. Therefore, we selected a representative member of each group/subgroup of C1A peptidases (1 cathepsin B-like, 1 cathepsin F-like, 1 cathepsin H-like and 5 cathepsins L-like). The molecular characterization of the cysteine-peptidases was done and the peptidase-inhibitor interaction was analyzed in vitro and in vivo. A study in the structural basis for specificity of pro-peptide/enzyme interaction in barley C1A cysteine-peptidases has been also carried out by inhibitory assays and the modeling of the three-dimensional structures. The barley grain maturation produces the accumulation of storage proteins (prolamins) in the endosperm which are mobilized during germination to supply the required nutrients until the photosynthesis is fully established. In this work, we have demonstrated the participation of the cysteine-peptidases and their inhibitors in the degradation of the different storage protein fractions (hordeins, albumins and globulins) present in the barley grain. Besides, transgenic barley plants overexpressing or silencing cysteine-peptidases or cystatins were obtained by Agrobacterium-mediated transformation of barley immature embryos to analyze their physiological function in vivo. Preliminary assays were carried out with the T1 grains of several transgenic lines. Comparing the knock-out and the overexpressing lines with the WT, alterations in the germination process were detected and were correlated with their grain hordein content. These data will be validated with the homozygous grains that are being produced through the double haploid technique by microspore culture. Resumen La proteólisis es un proceso metabólico por el cual se lleva a cabo la degradación de las proteínas de un organismo a través de enzimas específicas llamadas proteasas. En plantas, este complejo proceso comprende un entramado de rutas metabólicas que implican, además, diferentes compartimentos subcelulares. En la proteólisis participan numerosas proteasas, principalmente cisteín-, serín-, aspartil-, y metalo-proteasas. Dentro de las cisteín-proteasas, las proteasas tipo papaína o C1A (familia C1, clan CA) están extensamente representadas en plantas terrestres, y se clasifican en catepsinas tipo L, B, H y F. El mecanismo catalítico de estas proteasas está altamente conservado y la triada catalítica formada por los aminoácidos Cys, His y Asn, y a un aminoácido Gln, que parece esencial para el mantenimiento de la conformación activa de la proteína. Las proteasas C1A se sintetizan como precursores inactivos y comprenden un péptido señal en el extremo N-terminal, un pro-péptido y la proteína madura. En cebada hemos identificado 33 cisteín-proteasas de tipo papaína y las hemos clasificado filogenéticamente en 8 grupos diferentes. Cinco de ellos pertenecen a las catepsinas tipo L (5 subgrupos), un grupo a las catepsinas tipo-B, otro a las catepsinas tipo-F y un último a las catepsinas tipo-H. Las proteasas C1A son además las dianas específicas de los inhibidores protéicos de plantas denominados fitocistatinas. El mecanismo de inhibición de las cistatinas está basado en una fuerte interacción reversible. En cebada, se conoce la familia génica completa de las cistatinas, que está formada por 13 miembros. En el presente trabajo se ha investigado el papel de las cisteín-proteasas de cebada y sus inhibidores específicos en el proceso de la germinación de la semilla. Para ello, se seleccionó una proteasa representante de cada grupo/subgrupo (1 catepsina tipo- B, 1 tipo-F, 1 tipo-H, y 5 tipo-L, una por cada subgrupo). Se ha llevado a cabo su caracterización molecular y se ha analizado la interacción enzima-inhibidor tanto in vivo como in vitro. También se han realizado estudios sobre las bases estructurales que demuestran la especificidad en la interacción enzima/propéptido en las proteasas C1A de cebada, mediante ensayos de inhibición y la predicción de modelos estructurales de la interacción. Finalmente, y dado que durante la maduración de la semilla se almacenan proteínas de reserva (prolaminas) en el endospermo que son movilizadas durante la germinación para suministrar los nutrientes necesarios hasta que la nueva planta pueda realizar la fotosíntesis, en este trabajo se ha demostrado la participación de las cisteínproteasas y sus inhibidores en la degradación de las diferentes tipos de proteínas de reserva (hordeinas, albúmins y globulinas) presentes en el grano de cebada. Además, se han obtenido plantas transgénicas de cebada que sobre-expresan o silencian cistatinas y cisteín-proteasas con el fin de analizar la función fisiológica in vivo. Se han realizado análisis preliminares en las semillas T1 de varias líneas tránsgenicas de cebada y al comparar las líneas knock-out y las líneas de sobre-expresión con las silvestres, se han detectado alteraciones en la germinación que están además correlacionadas con el contenido de hordeinas de las semillas. Estos datos serán validados en las semillas homocigotas que se están generando mediante la técnica de dobles haploides a partir del cultivo de microesporas.

Functional genomics tools to decipher the pathogenicity mechanisms of the necrotrophic fungus Plectosphaerella cucumerina in Arabidopsis thaliana

The analysis of the interaction between Arabidopsis thaliana and adapted (PcBMM) and nonadapted (Pc2127) isolates of the necrotrophic fungus Plectosphaerella cucumerina has contributed to the identification of molecular mechanisms controlling plant resistance to necrotrophs.To characterize the pathogenicity bases of the virulence of necrotrophic fungi in Arabidopsis, we developed P. cucumerina functional genomics tools using Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation.We generated PcBMM-GFP and Pc2127-GFP transformants constitutively expressing the green fluorescence protein (GFP), and a collection of random T-DNA insertional PcBMM transformants. Confocal microscopy analyses of the initial stages of PcBMM-GFP infection revealed that this pathogen, like other necrotrophic fungi, does not form an appressorium or penetrate into plant cells, but causes successive degradation of leaf cell layers

Agrobacterium VirD2 protein interacts with plant host cyclophilins

Agrobacterium tumefaciens induces crown gall tumors on plants by transferring a nucleoprotein complex, the T-complex, from the bacterium to the plant cell. The T-complex consists of T-DNA, a single-stranded DNA segment of the tumor-inducing plasmid, VirD2, an endonuclease covalently bound to the 5′ end of the T-DNA, and perhaps VirE2, a single-stranded DNA binding protein. The yeast two-hybrid system was used to screen for proteins interacting with VirD2 and VirE2 to identify components in Arabidopsis thaliana that interact with the T-complex. Three VirD2- and two VirE2-interacting proteins were identified. Here we characterize the interactions of VirD2 with two isoforms of Arabidopsis cyclophilins identified by using this analysis. The VirD2 domain interacting with the cyclophilins is distinct from the endonuclease, omega, and the nuclear localization signal domains. The VirD2–cyclophilin interaction is disrupted in vitro by cyclosporin A, which also inhibits Agrobacterium-mediated transformation of Arabidopsis and tobacco. These data strongly suggest that host cyclophilins play a role in T-DNA transfer.

Expression of the Yeast FRE Genes in Transgenic Tobacco

Two yeast genes, FRE1 and FRE2 (encoding Fe(III) reductases) were placed under the control of the cauliflower mosaic virus 35S promoter and introduced into tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.) via Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation. Homozygous lines containing FRE1, FRE2, or FRE1 plus FRE2 were generated. Northern-blot analyses revealed mRNA of two different sizes in FRE1 lines, whereas all FRE2 lines had mRNA only of the expected length. Fe(III) reduction, chlorophyll contents, and Fe levels were determined in transgenic and control plants under Fe-sufficient and Fe-deficient conditions. In a normal growth environment, the highest root Fe(III) reduction, 4-fold higher than in controls, occurred in the double transformant (FRE1 + FRE2). Elevated Fe(III) reduction was also observed in all FRE2 and some FRE1 lines. The increased Fe(III) reduction occurred along the entire length of the roots and on shoot sections. FRE2 and double transformants were more tolerant to Fe deficiency in hydroponic culture, as shown by higher chlorophyll and Fe concentrations in younger leaves, whereas FRE1 transformants did not differ from the controls. Overall, the beneficial effects of FRE2 were consistent, suggesting that FRE2 may be used to improve Fe efficiency in crop plants.

Induction of Defense-Related Responses in Cf9 Tomato Cells by the AVR9 Elicitor Peptide of Cladosporium fulvum Is Developmentally Regulated1

The AVR9 elicitor from the fungal pathogen Cladosporium fulvum induces defense-related responses, including cell death, specifically in tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) plants that carry the Cf-9 resistance gene. To study biochemical mechanisms of resistance in detail, suspension cultures of tomato cells that carry the Cf-9 resistance gene were initiated. Treatment of cells with various elicitors, except AVR9, induced an oxidative burst, ion fluxes, and expression of defense-related genes. Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation of Cf9 tomato leaf discs with Avr9-containing constructs resulted efficiently in transgenic callus formation. Although transgenic callus tissue showed normal regeneration capacity, transgenic plants expressing both the Cf-9 and the Avr9 genes were never obtained. Transgenic F1 seedlings that were generated from crosses between tomato plants expressing the Avr9 gene and wild-type Cf9 plants died within a few weeks. However, callus cultures that were initiated on cotyledons from these seedlings could be maintained for at least 3 months and developed similarly to callus cultures that contained only the Cf-9 or the Avr9 gene. It is concluded, therefore, that induction of defense responses in Cf9 tomato cells by the AVR9 elicitor is developmentally regulated and is absent in callus tissue and cell-suspension cultures, which consists of undifferentiated cells. These results are significant for the use of suspension-cultured cells to investigate signal transduction cascades.

Effect of ATP Sulfurylase Overexpression in Bright Yellow 2 Tobacco Cells1 : Regulation of ATP Sulfurylase and SO42− Transport Activities

To determine if the ATP sulfurylase reaction is a regulatory step for the SO42−-assimilation pathway in plants, an Arabidopsis thaliana ATP sulfurylase cDNA, APS2, was fused to the 35S promoter of the cauliflower mosaic virus and introduced by Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation into isolated Bright Yellow 2 tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) cells. The ATP sulfurylase activity in transgenic cells was 8-fold that in control cells, and was correlated with the expression of a specific polypeptide revealed by western analysis using an anti-ATP sulfurylase antibody. The molecular mass of this polypeptide agreed with that for the overexpressed mature protein. ATP sulfurylase overexpression had no effect on [35S]SO42− influx or ATP sulfurylase activity regulation by S availability, except that ATP sulfurylase activity variations in response to S starvation in transgenic cells were 8 times higher than in the wild type. There were also no differences in cell growth or sensitivity to SeO42− (a toxic SO42− analog) between transgenic and wild-type cells. We propose that in Bright Yellow 2 tobacco cells, the ATP sulfurylase derepression by S deficiency may involve a posttranscriptional mechanism, and that the ATP sulfurylase abundance is not limiting for cell metabolism.

The solution structure of the Raf-1 cysteine-rich domain: a novel ras and phospholipid binding site.

The Raf-1 protein kinase is the best-characterized downstream effector of activated Ras. Interaction with Ras leads to Raf-1 activation and results in transduction of cell growth and differentiation signals. The details of Raf-1 activation are unclear, but our characterization of a second Ras-binding site in the cysteine-rich domain (CRD) and the involvement of both Ras-binding sites in effective Raf-1-mediated transformation provides insight into the molecular aspects and consequences of Ras-Raf interactions. The Raf-1 CRD is a member of an emerging family of domains, many of which are found within signal transducing proteins. Several contain binding sites for diacylglycerol (or phorbol esters) and phosphatidylserine and are believed to play a role in membrane translocation and enzyme activation. The CRD from Raf-1 does not bind diacylglycerol but interacts with Ras and phosphatidylserine. To investigate the ligand-binding specificities associated with CRDs, we have determined the solution structure of the Raf-1 CRD using heteronuclear multidimensional NMR. We show that there are differences between this structure and the structures of two related domains from protein kinase C (PKC). The differences are confined to regions of the CRDs involved in binding phorbol ester in the PKC domains. Since phosphatidylserine is a common ligand, we expect its binding site to be located in regions where the structures of the Raf-1 and PKC domains are similar. The structure of the Raf-1 CRD represents an example of this family of domains that does not bind diacylglycerol and provides a framework for investigating its interactions with other molecules.

Antiproliferative properties of the USF family of helix-loop-helix transcription factors.

USF is a family of transcription factors characterized by a highly conserved basic-helix-loop-helix-leucine zipper (bHLH-zip) DNA-binding domain. Two different USF genes, termed USF1 and USF2, are ubiquitously expressed in both humans and mice. The USF1 and USF2 proteins contain highly divergent transcriptional activation domains but share extensive homologies in the bHLH-zip region and recognize the same CACGTG DNA motifs. Although the DNA-binding and transcriptional activities of these proteins have been characterized, the biological function of USF is not well understood. Here, focus- and colony-formation assays were used to investigate the potential involvement of USF in the regulation of cellular transformation and proliferation. Both USF1 and USF2 inhibited the transformation of rat embryo fibroblasts mediated by Ras and c-Myc, a bHLH-zip transcription factor that also binds CACGTG motifs. DNA binding was required but not fully sufficient for inhibition of Myc-dependent transformation by USF, since deletion mutants containing only the DNA-binding domains of USF1 or USF2 produced partial inhibition. While the effect of USF1 was selective for Myc-dependent transformation, wild-type USF2 exerted in addition a strong inhibition of E1A-mediated transformation and a strong suppression of HeLa cell colony formation. These results suggest that members of the USF family may serve as negative regulators of cellular proliferation in two ways, one by antagonizing the transforming function of Myc, the other through a more general growth-inhibitory effect.

Introduction of the transposable element Minos into the germ line of Drosophila melanogaster.

A transposon based on the transposable element Minos from Drosophila hydei was introduced into the genome of Drosophila melanogaster using transformation mediated by the Minos transposase. The transposon carries a wild-type version of the white gene (w) of Drosophila inserted into the second exon of Minos. Transformation was obtained by injecting the transposon into preblastoderm embryos that were expressing transposase either from a Hsp70-Minos fusion inserted into the genome via P-element-mediated transformation or from a coinjected plasmid carrying the Hsp70-Minos fusion. Between 1% and 6% of the fertile injected individuals gave transformed progeny. Four of the insertions were cloned and the DNA sequences flanking the transposon ends were determined. The "empty" sites corresponding to three of the insertions were amplified from the recipient strain by PCR, cloned, and sequenced. In all cases, the transposon has inserted into a TA dinucleotide and has created the characteristic TA target site duplication. In the absence of transposase, the insertions were stable in the soma and the germ line. However, in the presence of the Hsp70-Minos gene the Minos-w transposon excises, resulting in mosaic eyes and germ-line reversion to the white phenotype. Minos could be utilized as an alternative to existing systems for transposon tagging and enhancer trapping in Drosophila; it might also be of use as a germ-line transformation vector for non-Drosophila insects.

Modified nicotine metabolism in transgenic tobacco plants expressing the human cytochrome P450 2A6 cDNA

In this study, the human cytochrome P450 (CYP) 2A6 was used in order to modify the alkaloid production of tobacco plants. The cDNA for human CYP2A6 was placed under the control of the constitutive 35S promoter and transferred into Nicotiana tabacum via Agrobacterium-mediated transformation. Transgenic plants showed formation of the recombinant CYP2A6 enzyme but no obvious phenotypic changes. Unlike wild-type tobacco, the transgenic plants accumulated cotinine, a metabolite which is usually formed from nicotine in humans. This result substantiates that metabolic engineering of the plant secondary metabolism via mammalian P450 enzymes is possible in vivo. (c) 2005 Federation of European Biochemical Societies. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Intron-mediated improvement of a selectable marker gene for plant transformation using Agrobacterium tumefaciens

In binary vectors, the antibiotic resistance gene used for selection of transformed plant cells is also usually expressed in the transforming Agrobacterium cells. This expression gives the bacterium antibiotic resistance, an unnecessary advantage on selective medium containing the antibiotic. Insertion of a castor bean catalase-1 (CAT-1) gene intron or a Parasponia andersonii haemoglobin gene intron into the coding region of the selectable marker gene, hph, completely abolished the expression of the gene in Agrobacterium, rendering it susceptible to hygromycin B. Use of these modified binary vectors minimized the overgrowth of Agrobacterium during plant transformation. Both of the introns were correctly spliced in plant cells and significantly enhanced hph gene expression in transformed rice tissue. The presence of these introns in the hph coding sequence not only maintained the selection efficiency of the hph gene, but with the CAT-1 intron also substantially increased the frequency of rice transformation. Transgenic lines with an intron-hph gene generally contained fewer gene copies and produced substantially more mRNA of the predicted size. Our results also indicate that transgenic plants with many copies of the transgene were more likely to show gene silencing than plants with 1-3 copies.

pGreen : a versatile and flexible binary Ti vector for Agrobacterium-mediated plant transformation

Binary Ti vectors are the plasmid vectors of choice in Agrobacterium-mediated plant transformation protocols. The pGreen series of binary Ti vectors are configured for ease-of-use and to meet the demands of a wide range of transformation procedures for many plant species. This plasmid system allows any arrangement of selectable marker and reporter gene at the right and left T-DNA borders without compromising the choice of restriction sites for cloning, since the pGreen cloning sites are based on the well-known pBluescript general vector plasmids. Its size and copy number in Escherichia coli offers increased efficiencies in routine in vitro recombination procedures. pGreen can replicate in Agrobacterium only if another plasmid, pSoup, is co-resident in the same strain. pSoup provides replication functions in trans for pGreen. The removal of RepA and Mob functions has enabled the size of pGreen to be kept to a minimum. Versions of pGreen have been used to transform several plant species with the same efficiencies as other binary Ti vectors. Information on the pGreen plasmid system is supplemented by an Internet site (http://www.pgreen.ac.uk) through which comprehensive information, protocols, order forms and lists of different pGreen marker gene permutations can be found.