Synthese, biochemische und physikochemische Charakterisierung von Liganden der Glycin-Bindungsstelle des NMDA-Rezeptors

Die exzitatorische Neurotransmission erfolgt über ionotrope Glutamat-Rezeptoren von denen dem NMDA-(N-Methyl-D-aspartat)-Rezeptor durch seine hohe Leitfähigkeit für Ca2+-Ionen eine besondere Rolle zugesprochen wird. Bei seiner Überaktivierung kommt es zu exzitotoxischen Prozessen, die direkt mit neurodegenerativen Erkrankungen einhergehen und nach einem Schlaganfall, bei akuten Epilepsien, Morbus Parkinson, Alzheimer Demenz aber auch im Bereich der neuropathischen Schmerzentstehung eine wichtige Rolle spielen.rnDurch das Eingreifen in die glutamatvermittelten pathologischen Prozesse verspricht man sich daher die Möglichkeit einer Neuroprotektion bei der Therapie verschiedener neurodegenerativer Erkrankungen, die primär auf völlig unterschiedliche Ursachen zurückzuführen sind.rnAusgehend von in früheren Arbeiten synthetisierten Hydantoin-substituierten Dichlor-indol-2-carbonsäure-Derivaten, die hochaffine Eigenschaften zur Glycin-Bindungsstelle des NMDA-Rezeptors aufweisen, sollten neue Derivate entwickelt und untersucht werden, die hinsichtlich ihrer Affinität zur Glycin-Bindungsstelle des NMDA-Rezeptors, ihrer Pharmakokinetik sowie physikochemischen Parameter in präparativ-organischen, radiopharmazeutischen und zell- bzw. tierexperimentellen Studien in vitro sowie in vivo charakterisiert werden sollten. Von besonderem Interesse war dabei die Evaluierung der synthetisierten Verbindungen in einem Verdrängungsassay mit dem Radioliganden [3H]MDL105,519 mit dem der Einfluss der strukturellen Modifikationen auf die Affinität zur Glycin-Bindungsstelle des Rezeptors untersucht wurde, sowie die Selektivität und die Potenz der Liganden abgeschätzt wurde.rnIm Rahmen der Struktur-Wirkungs-Untersuchungen mit Hilfe der Bindungsexperimente konnten bestimmte Strukturmerkmale als essentiell herausgestellt bzw. bekräftigt werden. Die Testverbindungen zeigten dabei IC50-Werte im Bereich von 0,0028 bis 51,8 μM. Die entsprechenden Ester dagegen IC50-Werte von 23,04 bis >3000 μM. Als vielversprechende Strukturen mit Affinitäten im niedrigen nanomolaren Bereich stellten sich Derivate mit einer 4,6-Dichlor-oder Difluor-Substitution am Indolgrundgerüst (2,8 bis 4,6 nM) heraus. Auch die Substitution des Phenylhydantoin-Teils durch das bioisostere Thienylhydantoin führte zu einer gleichbleibenden ausgeprägten Affinität (3,1 nM). rnZur Abschätzung der Bioverfügbarkeit, insbesondere der Fähigkeit zur Überwindung der Blut-Hirn-Schranke, wurden die Lipophilien bei einer Auswahl der Testverbindungen durch Bestimmung ihrer log P-Werte ermittelt. Neben dem Verfahren der potentiometrischen Titration wurde eine HPLC-Methode an einer RP-Phase verwendet.rnUm das Zytotoxizitätsprofil der synthetisierten Strukturen frühzeitig abschätzen zu können, wurde ein schnell durchführbares, zellbasiertes in vitro-Testsystem, der kommerziell erhältliche „Cell Proliferation Kit II (XTT-Test)“, eingesetzt. rnIm Rahmen von Positronen-Emissions-Tomographie-Experimenten an Ratten wurde eine Aussage bezüglich der Aufnahme und Verteilung eines radioaktiv markierten, hochaffinen Liganden an der Glycinbindungsstelle des NMDA-Rezeptors im Gehirn getroffen. Dabei wurden sowohl ein Carbonsäure-Derivat sowie der korrespondierende Ethylester dieser Testung unterworfen.rn

Oxidativer Stress als Modulator der NMDA-Rezeptorexpression auf zerebrovaskulären Endothelzellen

Oxidativer Stress in Form reaktiver Sauerstoffspezies (ROS) und Exzitotoxizität durch supraphysiologische Konzentrationen des Neurotransmitters Glutamat sind nicht nur beteiligt an der Pathogenese vielzähliger neurodegenerativer Erkrankungen wie Schlaganfall, Hirntrauma, Alzheimer Demenz oder Multipler Sklerose, sondern spielen zudem eine Schlüsselrolle im dort beobachteten Zusammenbruch der Blut-Hirn-Schranke. Glutamat führt durch Stimulation neuronaler und endothelialer NMDA-Rezeptoren zu einer Generierung von ROS. Nicht verfolgt worden war bisher, welche Auswirkungen ROS umgekehrt auch auf den NMDA-Rezeptor haben könnten. Im Rahmen der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde daher untersucht, ob und in welcher Weise die Exposition gegenüber reaktiven Sauerstoffspezies einen Einfluss auf die Expression und Aktivierbarkeit von NMDA-Rezeptoren auf zerebrovaskulären Endothelzellen ausübt.rnEs konnte zunächst die Expression der funktionell obligaten NR-1 Untereinheit des NMDA-Rezeptors auf der verwendeten Zelllinie b.End3 mittels Immunfluoreszenz-Mikroskopie gesichert werden. Ein Nachweis von mRNA für die Untereinheiten NR1 und NR2B, C und D erfolgte mittels RT-PCR. In der Analyse der replizierten RNA zeigten sich Hinweise für eine heterogene Komposition der exprimierten endothelialen NMDA-Rezeptoren.rnEs konnte weiter mit Hilfe der In-Cell-Western-Technik gezeigt werden, dass die Expression des NMDA-Rezeptors durch transiente Stimulation mit reaktiven Sauerstoffspezies im Sinne einer Heraufregulation moduliert werden kann. Die Stimulation der Zellen mit den reaktiven Sauerstoffspezies O2-, ONOO- und H2O2 führte dabei im Experiment zu einer deutlichen Zunahme der NR1-Expression, die spätestens nach 72 Stunden höchst signifikant war.rnUm zu überprüfen, welche Bedeutung diese Überexpression für die Integrität der Blut-Hirn-Schranke unter den exzitotoxischen Bedingungen hoher Glutamatkonzentrationen haben könnte, wurde mit Hilfe des ECIS-Systems („Electrical Cell-Substrate Impedance Sensing“) die Impedanz ROS-präexponierter Endothelmonolayer gemessen. Auf Rezeptorstimulation mit dem spezifischen Agonisten NMDA reagierten die vorbehandelten Gruppen mit einem Abfall der Impedanz gegenüber der nicht vorbehandelten Kontrolle.rnrnDie vorliegenden Ergebnisse zeigen, dass ROS in der Lage sind, funktionelle endotheliale NMDA-Rezeptoren zu induzieren und auf diesem Weg zu einem verstärkten Abfall der BHS-Integrität unter den Bedingungen exzitotoxischen und oxidativen Stresses führen. Dies stellt einen neuen Mechanismus zur Erklärung der Pathogenese des Blut-Hirn-Schrankenversagens dar.

Beta 1-integrins are required for hippocampal AMPA receptor-dependent synaptic transmission, synaptic plasticity, and working memory.

Integrins comprise a large family of cell adhesion receptors that mediate diverse biological events through cell-cell and cell-extracellular matrix interactions. Recent studies have shown that several integrins are localized to synapses with suggested roles in synaptic plasticity and memory formation. We generated a postnatal forebrain and excitatory neuron-specific knock-out of beta1-integrin in the mouse. Electrophysiological studies demonstrated that these mutants have impaired synaptic transmission through AMPA receptors and diminished NMDA receptor-dependent long-term potentiation. Despite the impairment in hippocampal synaptic transmission, the mutants displayed normal hippocampal-dependent spatial and contextual memory but were impaired in a hippocampal-dependent, nonmatching-to-place working memory task. These phenotypes parallel those observed in animals carrying knock-outs of the GluR1 (glutamate receptor subunit 1) subunit of the AMPA receptor. These observations suggest a new function of beta1-integrins as regulators of synaptic glutamate receptor function and working memory.

CONFORMATIONAL CHANGES IN THE EXTRACELLULAR DOMAIN OF GLUTAMATE RECEPTORS

The family of membrane protein called glutamate receptors play an important role in the central nervous system in mediating signaling between neurons. Glutamate receptors are involved in the elaborate game that nerve cells play with each other in order to control movement, memory, and learning. Neurons achieve this communication by rapidly converting electrical signals into chemical signals and then converting them back into electrical signals. To propagate an electrical impulse, neurons in the brain launch bursts of neurotransmitter molecules like glutamate at the junction between neurons, called the synapse. Glutamate receptors are found lodged in the membranes of the post-synaptic neuron. They receive the burst of neurotransmitters and respond by fielding the neurotransmitters and opening ion channels. Glutamate receptors have been implicated in a number of neuropathologies like ischemia, stroke and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Specifically, the NMDA subtype of glutamate receptors has been linked to the onset of Alzheimer’s disease and the subsequent degeneration of neuronal cells. While crystal structures of AMPA and kainate subtypes of glutamate receptors have provided valuable information regarding the assembly and mechanism of activation; little is known about the NMDA receptors. Even the basic question of receptor assembly still remains unanswered. Therefore, to gain a clear understanding of how the receptors are assembled and how agonist binding gets translated to channel opening, I have used a technique called Luminescence Resonance Energy Transfer (LRET). LRET offers the unique advantage of tracking large scale conformational changes associated with receptor activation and desensitization. In this dissertation, LRET, in combination with biochemical and electrophysiological studies, were performed on the NMDA receptors to draw a correlation between structure and function. NMDA receptor subtypes GluN1 and GluN2A were modified such that fluorophores could be introduced at specific sites to determine their pattern of assembly. The results indicated that the GluN1 subunits assembled across each other in a diagonal manner to form a functional receptor. Once the subunit arrangement was established, this was used as a model to further examine the mechanism of activation in this subtype of glutamate receptor. Using LRET, the correlation between cleft closure and activation was tested for both the GluN1 and GluN2A subunit of the NMDA receptor in response to agonists of varying efficacies. These investigations revealed that cleft closure plays a major role in the mechanism of activation in the NMDA receptor, similar to the AMPA and kainate subtypes. Therefore, suggesting that the mechanism of activation is conserved across the different subtypes of glutamate receptors.

Glutamate receptors expressed in {\it Xenopus\/} oocytes: Studies in function and regulation

The amino acid glutamate is the primary excitatory neurotransmitter for the CNS and is responsible for the majority of fast synaptic transmission. Glutamate receptors have been shown to be involved in multiple forms of synaptic plasticity such as LTP, LTD, and the formation of specific synaptic connections during development. In addition to contributing to the plasticity of the CNS, glutamate receptors also are involved in, at least in part, various pathological conditions such as epilepsy, ischemic damage due to stroke, and Huntington's chorea. The regulation of glutamate receptors, particularly the ionotropic NMDA and AMPA/KA receptors is therefore of great interest. In this body of work, glutamate receptor function and regulation by kinase activity was examined using the Xenopus oocyte which is a convenient and faithful expression system for exogenous proteins. Glutamate receptor responses were measured using the two-electrode voltage clamp technique in oocytes injected with rat total forebrain RNA. NMDA elicited currents that were glycine-dependent, subject to block by Mg$\sp{2+}$ in a voltage-dependent manner and sensitive to the specific NMDA antagonist APV in a manner consistent with those types of responses found in neural tissue. Similarly, KA-evoked currents were sensitive to the specific AMPA/KA antagonist CNQX and exhibited current voltage relationships consistent with the calcium permeable type II KA receptors found in the hippocampus. There is evidence to indicate that NMDA and AMPA/KA receptors are regulated by protein kinase A (PKA). We explored this by examining the effects of activators of PKA (forskolin, 1-isobutyl-3-methylxanthine (IBMX) and 8-Br-cAMP) on NMDA and KA currents in the oocyte. In buffer where Ca$\sp{2+}$ was replaced by 2 mM Ba$\sp{2+},$ forskolin plus IBMX and 8-Br-cAMP augmented currents due to NMDA application but not KA. This augmentation was abolished by pretreating the oocytes in the kinase inhibitor K252A. The use of chloride channel blockers resulted in attenuation of this effect indicating that Ba$\sp{2+}$ influx through the NMDA channel was activating the endogenous calcium-activated chloride current and that the cAMP mediated augmentation was at the level of the chloride channel and not the NMDA channel. This was confirmed by (1) the finding that 8-Br-cAMP increased chloride currents elicited via calcium channel activation while having no effect on the calcium channels themselves and (2) the fact that lowering the Ba$\sp{2+}$ concentration to 200 $\mu$M abolished the augmentation NMDA currents by 8-Br-cAMP. Thus PKA does not appear to modulate ionotropic glutamate receptors in our preparation. Another kinase also implicated in the regulation of NMDA receptors, calcium/phospholipid-dependent protein kinase (PKC), was examined for its effects on the NMDA receptor under low Ba$\sp{2+}$ (200 $\mu$M) conditions. Phorbol esters, activators of PKC, induced a robust potentiation of NMDA currents that was blockable by the kinase inhibitor K252A. Furthermore activation of metabotropic receptors by the selective agonist trans-ACPD, also potentiated NMDA albeit more modestly. These results indicate that neither NMDA nor KA-activated glutamate receptors are modulated by PKA in Xenopus oocytes whereas NMDA receptors appear to be augmented by PKC. Furthermore, the endogenous chloride current of the oocyte was found to be responsive to Ba$\sp{2+}$ and in addition is enhanced by PKA. Both of these latter findings are novel. In conclusion, the Xenopus oocyte is a useful expression system for the analysis of ligand-gated channel activity and the regulation of those channels by phosphorylation. ^

Glutamate and nitric oxide as regulatory transmitters in developing rabbit retina

Glutamate is the major excitatory neurotransmitter in the retina and serves as the synaptic messenger for the three classes of neurons which constitute the vertical pathway--the photoreceptors, bipolar cells and ganglion cells. In addition, the glutamate system has been localized morphologically, pharmacologically as well as molecularly during the first postnatal week of development before synaptogenesis occurs. The role which glutamate plays in the maturing visual system is complex but ranges from mediating developmental neurotoxicity to inducing neurite outgrowth.^ Nitric oxide/cGMP is a novel intercellular messenger which is thought to act in concert with the glutamate system in regulating a variety of cellular processes in the brain as well as retina, most notably neurotoxicity. Several developmental activities including programmed cell death, synapse elimination and synaptic reorganization are possible functions of cellular regulation modulated by nitric oxide as well as glutamate.^ The purpose of this thesis is to (1) biochemically characterize the endogenous pools of glutamate and determine what fraction exists extracellularly; (2) examine the morphological expression of NO producing cells in developing retina; (3) test the functional coupling of the NMDA subtype of glutamate receptor to the NO system by examining neurotoxicity which has roles in both the maturing and adult retina.^ Biochemical sampling of perfusates collected from the photoreceptor surface of ex vivo retina demonstrated that although the total pool of glutamate present at birth is relatively modest, a high percentage resides in extracellular pools. As a result, immature neurons without significant synaptic connections survive and develop in a highly glutamatergic environment which has been shown to be toxic in the adult retina.^ The interaction of the glutamate system with the NO system has been postulated to regulate neuronal survival. We therefore examined the developmental expression of the enzyme responsible for producing NO, nitric oxide synthase (NOS), using an antibody to the constitutive form of NOS found in the brain. The neurons thought to produce the majority of NO in the adult retina, a subpopulation of widefield amacrine cells, were not immunoreactive until the end of the second postnatal week. However, a unique developmental expression was observed in the ganglion cell layer and developing outer nuclear layer of the retina during the first postnatal week. We postulate NO producing neurons may not be present in a mature configuration therefore permitting neuronal survival in a highly glutamatergic microenvironment and allowing NO to play a development-specific role at this time.^ The next set of experiments constituted a functional test of the hypothesis that the absence of the prototypic NO producing cells in developing retina protects immature neurons against glutamate toxicity. An explant culture system developed in order to examine cellular responses of immature and adult neurons to glutamate toxicity showed that immature neurons were affected by NMDA but were less responsive to NMDA and NO mediated toxicity. In contrast, adult explants exhibited significant NMDA toxicity which was attenuated by NMDA antagonists, 2-amino-5-phosphonovaleric acid (APV), dextromethorphan (Dex) and N$\rm\sp{G}$-D-methyl arginine (metARG). These results indicated that pan-retinal neurotoxicity via the NMDA receptor and/or NO activation occurred in the adult retina but was not significant in the neonate. (Abstract shortened by UMI.) ^

An N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor channel blocker with neuroprotective activity

Excitotoxicity, resulting from sustained activation of glutamate receptors of the N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) subtype, is considered to play a causative role in the etiology of ischemic stroke and several neurodegenerative diseases. The NMDA receptor is therefore a target for the development of neuroprotective agents. Here, we identify an N-benzylated triamine (denoted as NBTA) as a highly selective and potent NMDA-receptor channel blocker selected by screening a reduced dipeptidomimetic synthetic combinatorial library. NBTA blocks recombinant NMDA receptors expressed in Xenopus laevis oocytes with a mean IC50 of 80 nM; in contrast, it does not block GluR1, a glutamate receptor of the non-NMDA subtype. The blocking activity of NBTA on NMDA receptors exhibits the characteristics of an open-channel blocker: (i) no competition with agonists, (ii) voltage dependence, and (iii) use dependence. Significantly, NBTA protects rodent hippocampal neurons from NMDA receptor, but not kainate receptor-mediated excitotoxic cell death, in agreement with its selective action on the corresponding recombinant receptors. Mutagenesis data indicate that the N site, a key asparagine on the M2 transmembrane segment of the NR1 subunit, is the main determinant of the blocker action. The results highlight the potential of this compound as a neuroprotectant.

The glycine binding site of the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor subunit NR1: identification of novel determinants of co-agonist potentiation in the extracellular M3-M4 loop region.

The N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) subtype of ionotropic glutamate receptors is a heterooligomeric membrane protein composed of homologous subunits. Here, the contribution of the M3-M4 loop of the NR1 subunit to the binding of glutamate and the co-agonist glycine was investigated by site-directed mutagenesis. Substitution of the phenylalanine residues at positions 735 or 736 of the M3-M4 loop produced a 15- to 30-fold reduction in apparent glycine affinity without affecting the binding of glutamate and the competitive glycine antagonist 7-chlorokynurenic acid; mutation of both residues caused a >100-fold decrease in glycine affinity. These residues are found in a C-terminal region of the M3-M4 loop that shows significant sequence similarity to bacterial amino acid-binding proteins. Epitope tagging revealed both the N-terminus and the M3-M4 loop to be exposed extracellularly, whereas a C-terminal epitope was localized intracellularly. These results indicate that the M3-M4 loop is part of the ligand-binding pocket of the NR1 subunit and provide the basis for a refined model of the glycine-binding site of the NMDA receptor.

Behavioral stress modifies hippocampal plasticity through N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor activation.

Behavioral stress has detrimental effects on subsequent cognitive performance in many species, including humans. For example, humans exposed to stressful situations typically exhibit marked deficits in various learning and memory tasks. However, the underlying neural mechanisms by which stress exerts its effects on learning and memory are unknown. We now report that in adult male rats, stress (i.e., restraint plus tailshock) impairs long-term potentiation (LTP) but enhances long-term depression (LTD) in the CA1 area of the hippocampus, a structure implicated in learning and memory processes. These effects on LTP and LTD are prevented when the animals were given CGP39551 (the carboxyethylester of CGP 37849; DL-(E)-2-amino-4-methyl-5-phosphono-3-pentenoic acid), a competitive N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonist, before experiencing stress. In contrast, the anxiolytic drug diazepam did not block the stress effects on hippocampal plasticity. Thus, the effects of stress on subsequent LTP and LTD appear to be mediated through the activation of the NMDA subtype of glutamate receptors. Such modifications in hippocampal plasticity may contribute to learning and memory impairments associated with stress.

N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor-induced proteolytic conversion of postsynaptic class C L-type calcium channels in hippocampal neurons.

Ca2+ influx controls multiple neuronal functions including neurotransmitter release, protein phosphorylation, gene expression, and synaptic plasticity. Brain L-type Ca2+ channels, which contain either alpha 1C or alpha 1D as their pore-forming subunits, are an important source of calcium entry into neurons. Alpha 1C exists in long and short forms, which are differentially phosphorylated, and C-terminal truncation of alpha 1C increases its activity approximately 4-fold in heterologous expression systems. Although most L-type calcium channels in brain are localized in the cell body and proximal dendrites, alpha 1C subunits in the hippocampus are also present in clusters along the dendrites of neurons. Examination by electron microscopy shows that these clusters of alpha 1C are localized in the postsynaptic membrane of excitatory synapses, which are known to contain glutamate receptors. Activation of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA)-specific glutamate receptors induced the conversion of the long form of alpha 1C into the short form by proteolytic removal of the C terminus. Other classes of Ca2+ channel alpha1 subunits were unaffected. This proteolytic processing reaction required extracellular calcium and was blocked by inhibitors of the calcium-activated protease calpain, indicating that calcium entry through NMDA receptors activated proteolysis of alpha1C by calpain. Purified calpain catalyzed conversion of the long form of immunopurified alpha 1C to the short form in vitro, consistent with the hypothesis that calpain is responsible for processing of alpha 1C in hippocampal neurons. Our results suggest that NMDA receptor-induced processing of the postsynaptic class C L-type Ca2+ channel may persistently increase Ca2+ influx following intense synaptic activity and may influence Ca2+-dependent processes such as protein phosphorylation, synaptic plasticity, and gene expression.

Circuit-specific alterations of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor subunit 1 in the dentate gyrus of aged monkeys.

Age-associated memory impairment occurs frequently in primates. Based on the established importance of both the perforant path and N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors in memory formation, we investigated the glutamate receptor distribution and immunofluorescence intensity within the dentate gyrus of juvenile, adult, and aged macaque monkeys with the combined use of subunit-specific antibodies and quantitative confocal laser scanning microscopy. Here we demonstrate that aged monkeys, compared to adult monkeys, exhibit a 30.6% decrease in the ratio of NMDA receptor subunit 1 (NMDAR1) immunofluorescence intensity within the distal dendrites of the dentate gyrus granule cells, which receive the perforant path input from the entorhinal cortex, relative to the proximal dendrites, which receive an intrinsic excitatory input from the dentate hilus. The intradendritic alteration in NMDAR1 immunofluorescence occurs without a similar alteration of non-NMDA receptor subunits. Further analyses using synaptophysin as a reflection of total synaptic density and microtubule-associated protein 2 as a dendritic structural marker demonstrated no significant difference in staining intensity or area across the molecular layer in aged animals compared to the younger animals. These findings suggest that, in aged monkeys, a circuit-specific alteration in the intradendritic concentration of NMDAR1 occurs without concomitant gross structural changes in dendritic morphology or a significant change in the total synaptic density across the molecular layer. This alteration in the NMDA receptor-mediated input to the hippocampus from the entorhinal cortex may represent a molecular/cellular substrate for age-associated memory impairments.

Regulation of N-methyl-D-aspartate-induced toxicity in the neostriatum: a role for metabotropic glutamate receptors?

Glutamate release activates multiple receptors that interact with each other and thus determine the response of the cell. Exploring these interactions is critical to developing an understanding of the functional consequences of synaptic transmission. Activation of metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs) inhibits N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA)-evoked responses measured electrophysiologically in neostriatal slices. The present study examines the functional consequences of this regulation using infrared differential interference contrast videomicroscopy to measure and characterize glutamate receptor-induced cell swelling in a neostriatal brain slice preparation. This swelling is, in many cases, a prelude to necrotic cell death and the dye trypan blue was used to confirm that swelling can result in the death of neostriatal cells. Activation of mGluRs by the agonist 1-aminocyclopentane-1,3-dicarboxylic acid (tACPD) inhibited NMDA but not amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid/kainate-induced swelling. This regulation was cell-type specific as tACPD did not alter NMDA-induced swelling in pyramidal cells of the hippocampus. Importantly, these findings could be extended to in vivo preparations. Pretreatment with tACPD limited the size of lesions and associated behavioral deficits induced by intrastriatal administration of the NMDA receptor agonist quinolinic acid.

Synaptic activation of NF-kappa B by glutamate in cerebellar granule neurons in vitro.

Neuronal proliferation, migration, and differentiation are regulated by the sequential expression of particular genes at specific stages of development. Such processes rely on differential gene expression modulated through second-messenger systems. Early postnatal mouse cerebellar granule cells migrate into the internal granular layer and acquire differentiated properties. The neurotransmitter glutamate has been shown to play an important role in this developmental process. We show here by immunohistochemistry that the RelA subunit of the transcription factor NF-kappa B is present in several areas of the mouse brain. Moreover, immunofluorescence microscopy and electrophoretic mobility-shift assay demonstrate that in cerebellar granule cell cultures derived from 3- to 7-day-old mice, glutamate specifically activates the transcription factor NF-kappa B, as shown by binding of nuclear extract proteins to a synthetic oligonucleotide reproducing the kappa B site of human immunodeficiency virus. The use of different antagonists of the glutamate recpetors indicates that the effect of glutamate occurs mainly via N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA)-receptor activation, possibly as a result of an increase in intracellular Ca2+. The synaptic specificity of the effect is strongly suggested by the observation that glutamate failed to activate NF-kappa B in astrocytes, while cytokines, such as interleukin 1 alpha and tumor necrosis factor alpha, did so. The effect of glutamate appears to be developmentally regulated. Indeed, NF-kappa B is found in an inducible form in the cytoplasm of neurons of 3- to 7-day-old mice but is constitutively activated in the nuclei of neurons derived from older pups (8-10 days postnatal). Overall, these observations suggest the existence of a new pathway of trans-synaptic regulation of gene expression.

D-serine, an endogenous synaptic modulator: localization to astrocytes and glutamate-stimulated release.

Using an antibody highly specific for D-serine conjugated to glutaraldehyde, we have localized endogenous D-serine in rat brain. Highest levels of D-serine immunoreactivity occur in the gray matter of the cerebral cortex, hippocampus, anterior olfactory nucleus, olfactory tubercle, and amygdala. Localizations of D-serine immunoreactivity correlate closely with those of D-serine binding to the glycine modulatory site of the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor as visualized by autoradiography and are inversely correlated to the presence of D-amino acid oxidase. D-Serine is enriched in process-bearing glial cells in neuropil with the morphology of protoplasmic astrocytes. In glial cultures of rat cerebral cortex, D-serine is enriched in type 2 astrocytes. The release of D-serine from these cultures is stimulated by agonists of non-NMDA glutamate receptors, suggesting a mechanism by which astrocyte-derived D-serine could modulate neurotransmission. D-Serine appears to be the endogenous ligand for the glycine site of NMDA receptors.

Citrate modulates the regulation by Zn2+ of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor-mediated channel current and neurotransmitter release.

The effect of the two metal-ion chelators EDTA and citrate on the action of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors was investigated by use of cultured mouse cerebellar granule neurons and Xenopus oocytes, respectively, to monitor either NMDA-evoked transmitter release or membrane currents. Transmitter release from the glutamatergic neurons was determined by superfusion of the cells after preloading with the glutamate analogue D-[3H]aspartate. The oocytes were injected with mRNA isolated from mouse cerebellum and, after incubation to allow translation to occur, currents mediated by NMDA were recorded electrophysiologically by voltage clamp at a holding potential of -80 mV. It was found that citrate as well as EDTA could attenuate the inhibitory action of Zn2+ on NMDA receptor-mediated transmitter release from the neurons and membrane currents in the oocytes. These effects were specifically related to the NMDA receptor, since the NMDA receptor antagonist MK-801 abolished the action and no effects of Zn2+ and its chelators were observed when kainate was used to selectively activate non-NMDA receptors. Since it was additionally demonstrated that citrate (and EDTA) preferentially chelated Zn2+ rather than Ca2+, the present findings strongly suggest that endogenous citrate released specifically from astrocytes into the extracellular space in the brain may function as a modulator of NMDA receptor activity. This is yet another example of astrocytic influence on neuronal activity.