Localização automática de pontos de controle em imagens aéreas baseada em cenas terrestres verticais

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Orientação e ortorretificação de imagens terrestres nadirais

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq)

Modelos geoidais híbridos para o Estado de São Paulo: desenvolvimento e avaliação

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES)

Calcolo della posizione di reti di stazioni permanenti

Con il trascorrere del tempo, le reti di stazioni permanenti GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System) divengono sempre più un valido supporto alle tecniche di rilevamento satellitare. Esse sono al tempo stesso un’efficace materializzazione del sistema di riferimento e un utile ausilio ad applicazioni di rilevamento topografico e di monitoraggio per il controllo di deformazioni. Alle ormai classiche applicazioni statiche in post-processamento, si affiancano le misure in tempo reale sempre più utilizzate e richieste dall’utenza professionale. In tutti i casi risulta molto importante la determinazione di coordinate precise per le stazioni permanenti, al punto che si è deciso di effettuarla tramite differenti ambienti di calcolo. Sono stati confrontati il Bernese, il Gamit (che condividono l’approccio differenziato) e il Gipsy (che utilizza l’approccio indifferenziato). L’uso di tre software ha reso indispensabile l’individuazione di una strategia di calcolo comune in grado di garantire che, i dati ancillari e i parametri fisici adottati, non costituiscano fonte di diversificazione tra le soluzioni ottenute. L’analisi di reti di dimensioni nazionali oppure di reti locali per lunghi intervalli di tempo, comporta il processamento di migliaia se non decine di migliaia di file; a ciò si aggiunge che, talora a causa di banali errori, oppure al fine di elaborare test scientifici, spesso risulta necessario reiterare le elaborazioni. Molte risorse sono quindi state investite nella messa a punto di procedure automatiche finalizzate, da un lato alla preparazione degli archivi e dall’altro all’analisi dei risultati e al loro confronto qualora si sia in possesso di più soluzioni. Dette procedure sono state sviluppate elaborando i dataset più significativi messi a disposizione del DISTART (Dipartimento di Ingegneria delle Strutture, dei Trasporti, delle Acque, del Rilevamento del Territorio - Università di Bologna). E’ stato così possibile, al tempo stesso, calcolare la posizione delle stazioni permanenti di alcune importanti reti locali e nazionali e confrontare taluni fra i più importanti codici scientifici che assolvono a tale funzione. Per quanto attiene il confronto fra i diversi software si è verificato che: • le soluzioni ottenute dal Bernese e da Gamit (i due software differenziati) sono sempre in perfetto accordo; • le soluzioni Gipsy (che utilizza il metodo indifferenziato) risultano, quasi sempre, leggermente più disperse rispetto a quelle degli altri software e mostrano talvolta delle apprezzabili differenze numeriche rispetto alle altre soluzioni, soprattutto per quanto attiene la coordinata Est; le differenze sono però contenute in pochi millimetri e le rette che descrivono i trend sono comunque praticamente parallele a quelle degli altri due codici; • il citato bias in Est tra Gipsy e le soluzioni differenziate, è più evidente in presenza di determinate combinazioni Antenna/Radome e sembra essere legato all’uso delle calibrazioni assolute da parte dei diversi software. E’ necessario altresì considerare che Gipsy è sensibilmente più veloce dei codici differenziati e soprattutto che, con la procedura indifferenziata, il file di ciascuna stazione di ciascun giorno, viene elaborato indipendentemente dagli altri, con evidente maggior elasticità di gestione: se si individua un errore strumentale su di una singola stazione o se si decide di aggiungere o togliere una stazione dalla rete, non risulta necessario il ricalcolo dell’intera rete. Insieme alle altre reti è stato possibile analizzare la Rete Dinamica Nazionale (RDN), non solo i 28 giorni che hanno dato luogo alla sua prima definizione, bensì anche ulteriori quattro intervalli temporali di 28 giorni, intercalati di sei mesi e che coprono quindi un intervallo temporale complessivo pari a due anni. Si è così potuto verificare che la RDN può essere utilizzata per l’inserimento in ITRF05 (International Terrestrial Reference Frame) di una qualsiasi rete regionale italiana nonostante l’intervallo temporale ancora limitato. Da un lato sono state stimate le velocità ITRF (puramente indicative e non ufficiali) delle stazioni RDN e, dall’altro, è stata effettuata una prova di inquadramento di una rete regionale in ITRF, tramite RDN, e si è verificato che non si hanno differenze apprezzabili rispetto all’inquadramento in ITRF, tramite un congruo numero di stazioni IGS/EUREF (International GNSS Service / European REference Frame, SubCommission for Europe dello International Association of Geodesy).

GNSS interference management techniques against malicious attacks

This thesis collects the outcomes of a Ph.D. course in Telecommunications Engineering and it is focused on the study and design of possible techniques able to counteract interference signal in Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) systems. The subject is the jamming threat in navigation systems, that has become a very increasingly important topic in recent years, due to the wide diffusion of GNSS-based civil applications. Detection and mitigation techniques are developed in order to fight out jamming signals, tested in different scenarios and including sophisticated signals. The thesis is organized in two main parts, which deal with management of GNSS intentional counterfeit signals. The first part deals with the interference management, focusing on the intentional interfering signal. In particular, a technique for the detection and localization of the interfering signal level in the GNSS bands in frequency domain has been proposed. In addition, an effective mitigation technique which exploits the periodic characteristics of the common jamming signals reducing interfering effects at the receiver side has been introduced. Moreover, this technique has been also tested in a different and more complicated scenario resulting still effective in mitigation and cancellation of the interfering signal, without high complexity. The second part still deals with the problem of interference management, but regarding with more sophisticated signal. The attention is focused on the detection of spoofing signal, which is the most complex among the jamming signal types. Due to this highly difficulty in detect and mitigate this kind of signal, spoofing threat is considered the most dangerous. In this work, a possible techniques able to detect this sophisticated signal has been proposed, observing and exploiting jointly the outputs of several operational block measurements of the GNSS receiver operating chain.

A consistent combination of GNSS and SLR with minimum constraints

In this article, the realization of a global terrestrial reference system (TRS) based on a consistent combination of Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) and Satellite Laser Ranging (SLR) is studied. Our input data consists of normal equation systems from 17 years (1994– 2010) of homogeneously reprocessed GPS, GLONASS and SLR data. This effort used common state of the art reduction models and the same processing software (Bernese GNSS Software) to ensure the highest consistency when combining GNSS and SLR. Residual surface load deformations are modeled with a spherical harmonic approach. The estimated degree-1 surface load coefficients have a strong annual signal for which the GNSS- and SLR-only solutions show very similar results. A combination including these coefficients reduces systematic uncertainties in comparison to the singletechnique solution. In particular, uncertainties due to solar radiation pressure modeling in the coefficient time series can be reduced up to 50 % in the GNSS+SLR solution compared to the GNSS-only solution. In contrast to the ITRF2008 realization, no local ties are used to combine the different geodetic techniques.We combine the pole coordinates as global ties and apply minimum constraints to define the geodetic datum. We show that a common origin, scale and orientation can be reliably realized from our combination strategy in comparison to the ITRF2008.

Study of the fronts of Johnsons and Hurd Glaciers (Livingston Island, Antarctica) from 1957 to 2013, with links to shapefiles

The study of glacier fronts combines different geomatics measurement techniques as the classic survey using total station or theodolite, technical GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System), using laser-scanner or using photogrammetry (air or ground). The measure by direct methods (classical surveying and GNSS) is useful and fast when accessibility to the glaciers fronts is easy, while it is practically impossible to realize, in the case of glacier fronts that end up in the sea (tide water glaciers). In this paper, a methodology that combines photogrammetric methods and other techniques for lifting the front of the glacier Johnsons, inaccessible is studied. The images obtained from the front, come from a non-metric digital camera; its georeferencing to a global coordinate system is performed by measuring points GNSS support in accessible areas of the glacier front side and applying methods of direct intersection in inaccessible points of the front, taking measurements with theodolite. The result of observations obtained were applied to study the temporal evolution (1957-2014) of the position of the Johnsons glacier front and the position of the Argentina, Las Palmas and Sally Rocks lobes front (Hurd glacier).

Determinación de un modelo de geoide gravimétrico para Puerto Rico como sistema de referencia para las altitudes ortométricas

El geoide, definido como la superficie equipotencial que mejor se ajusta (en el sentido de los mínimos cuadrados) al nivel medio del mar en una determinada época, es la superficie que utilizamos como referencia para determinar las altitudes ortométricas. Si disponemos de una superficie equipotencial de referencia como dátum altimétrico preciso o geoide local, podemos entonces determinar las altitudes ortométricas de forma eficiente a partir de las altitudes elipsoidales proporcionadas por el Sistema Global de Navegación por Satélite (Global Navigation Satellite System, GNSS ). Como es sabido uno de los problemas no resueltos de la geodesia (quizás el más importante de los mismos en la actualidad) es la carencia de un dátum altimétrico global (Sjoberg, 2011) con las precisiones adecuadas. Al no existir un dátum altimétrico global que nos permita obtener los valores absolutos de la ondulación del geoide con la precisión requerida, es necesario emplear modelos geopotenciales como alternativa. Recientemente fue publicado el modelo EGM2008 en el que ha habido una notable mejoría de sus tres fuentes de datos, por lo que este modelo contiene coeficientes adicionales hasta el grado 2190 y orden 2159 y supone una sustancial mejora en la precisión (Pavlis et al., 2008). Cuando en una región determinada se dispone de valores de gravedad y Modelos Digitales del Terreno (MDT) de calidad, es posible obtener modelos de superficies geopotenciales más precisos y de mayor resolución que los modelos globales. Si bien es cierto que el Servicio Nacional Geodésico de los Estados Unidos de América (National Geodetic Survey, NGS) ha estado desarrollando modelos del geoide para la región de los Estados Unidos de América continentales y todos sus territorios desde la década de los noventa, también es cierto que las zonas de Puerto Rico y las Islas Vírgenes Estadounidenses han quedado un poco rezagadas al momento de poder aplicar y obtener resultados de mayor precisión con estos modelos regionales del geoide. En la actualidad, el modelo geopotencial regional vigente para la zona de Puerto Rico y las Islas Vírgenes Estadounidenses es el GEOID12A (Roman y Weston, 2012). Dada la necesidad y ante la incertidumbre de saber cuál sería el comportamiento de un modelo del geoide desarrollado única y exclusivamente con datos de gravedad locales, nos hemos dado a la tarea de desarrollar un modelo de geoide gravimétrico como sistema de referencia para las altitudes ortométricas. Para desarrollar un modelo del geoide gravimétrico en la isla de Puerto Rico, fue necesario implementar una metodología que nos permitiera analizar y validar los datos de gravedad terrestre existentes. Utilizando validación por altimetría con sistemas de información geográfica y validación matemática por colocación con el programa Gravsoft (Tscherning et al., 1994) en su modalidad en Python (Nielsen et al., 2012), fue posible validar 1673 datos de anomalías aire libre de un total de 1894 observaciones obtenidas de la base de datos del Bureau Gravimétrico Internacional (BGI). El aplicar estas metodologías nos permitió obtener una base de datos anomalías de la gravedad fiable la cual puede ser utilizada para una gran cantidad de aplicaciones en ciencia e ingeniería. Ante la poca densidad de datos de gravedad existentes, fue necesario emplear un método alternativo para densificar los valores de anomalías aire libre existentes. Empleando una metodología propuesta por Jekeli et al. (2009b) se procedió a determinar anomalías aire libre a partir de los datos de un MDT. Estas anomalías fueron ajustadas utilizando las anomalías aire libre validadas y tras aplicar un ajuste de mínimos cuadrados por zonas geográficas, fue posible obtener una malla de datos de anomalías aire libre uniforme a partir de un MDT. Tras realizar las correcciones topográficas, determinar el efecto indirecto de la topografía del terreno y la contribución del modelo geopotencial EGM2008, se obtuvo una malla de anomalías residuales. Estas anomalías residuales fueron utilizadas para determinar el geoide gravimétrico utilizando varias técnicas entre las que se encuentran la aproximación plana de la función de Stokes y las modificaciones al núcleo de Stokes, propuestas por Wong y Gore (1969), Vanicek y Kleusberg (1987) y Featherstone et al. (1998). Ya determinados los distintos modelos del geoide gravimétrico, fue necesario validar los mismos y para eso se utilizaron una serie de estaciones permanentes de la red de nivelación del Datum Vertical de Puerto Rico de 2002 (Puerto Rico Vertical Datum 2002, PRVD02 ), las cuales tenían publicados sus valores de altitud elipsoidal y elevación. Ante la ausencia de altitudes ortométricas en las estaciones permanentes de la red de nivelación, se utilizaron las elevaciones obtenidas a partir de nivelación de primer orden para determinar los valores de la ondulación del geoide geométrico (Roman et al., 2013). Tras establecer un total de 990 líneas base, se realizaron dos análisis para determinar la 'precisión' de los modelos del geoide. En el primer análisis, que consistió en analizar las diferencias entre los incrementos de la ondulación del geoide geométrico y los incrementos de la ondulación del geoide de los distintos modelos (modelos gravimétricos, EGM2008 y GEOID12A) en función de las distancias entre las estaciones de validación, se encontró que el modelo con la modificación del núcleo de Stokes propuesta por Wong y Gore presentó la mejor 'precisión' en un 91,1% de los tramos analizados. En un segundo análisis, en el que se consideraron las 990 líneas base, se determinaron las diferencias entre los incrementos de la ondulación del geoide geométrico y los incrementos de la ondulación del geoide de los distintos modelos (modelos gravimétricos, EGM2008 y GEOID12A), encontrando que el modelo que presenta la mayor 'precisión' también era el geoide con la modificación del núcleo de Stokes propuesta por Wong y Gore. En este análisis, el modelo del geoide gravimétrico de Wong y Gore presento una 'precisión' de 0,027 metros en comparación con la 'precisión' del modelo EGM2008 que fue de 0,031 metros mientras que la 'precisión' del modelo regional GEOID12A fue de 0,057 metros. Finalmente podemos decir que la metodología aquí presentada es una adecuada ya que fue posible obtener un modelo del geoide gravimétrico que presenta una mayor 'precisión' que los modelos geopotenciales disponibles, incluso superando la precisión del modelo geopotencial global EGM2008. ABSTRACT The geoid, defined as the equipotential surface that best fits (in the least squares sense) to the mean sea level at a particular time, is the surface used as a reference to determine the orthometric heights. If we have an equipotential reference surface or a precise local geoid, we can then determine the orthometric heights efficiently from the ellipsoidal heights, provided by the Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS). One of the most common and important an unsolved problem in geodesy is the lack of a global altimetric datum (Sjoberg, 2011)) with the appropriate precision. In the absence of one which allows us to obtain the absolute values of the geoid undulation with the required precision, it is necessary to use alternative geopotential models. The EGM2008 was recently published, in which there has been a marked improvement of its three data sources, so this model contains additional coefficients of degree up to 2190 and order 2159, and there is a substantial improvement in accuracy (Pavlis et al., 2008). When a given region has gravity values and high quality digital terrain models (DTM), it is possible to obtain more accurate regional geopotential models, with a higher resolution and precision, than global geopotential models. It is true that the National Geodetic Survey of the United States of America (NGS) has been developing geoid models for the region of the continental United States of America and its territories from the nineties, but which is also true is that areas such as Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands have lagged behind when to apply and get more accurate results with these regional geopotential models. Right now, the available geopotential model for Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands is the GEOID12A (Roman y Weston, 2012). Given this need and given the uncertainty of knowing the behavior of a regional geoid model developed exclusively with data from local gravity, we have taken on the task of developing a gravimetric geoid model to use as a reference system for orthometric heights. To develop a gravimetric geoid model in the island of Puerto Rico, implementing a methodology that allows us to analyze and validate the existing terrestrial gravity data is a must. Using altimetry validation with GIS and mathematical validation by collocation with the Gravsoft suite programs (Tscherning et al., 1994) in its Python version (Nielsen et al., 2012), it was possible to validate 1673 observations with gravity anomalies values out of a total of 1894 observations obtained from the International Bureau Gravimetric (BGI ) database. Applying these methodologies allowed us to obtain a database of reliable gravity anomalies, which can be used for many applications in science and engineering. Given the low density of existing gravity data, it was necessary to employ an alternative method for densifying the existing gravity anomalies set. Employing the methodology proposed by Jekeli et al. (2009b) we proceeded to determine gravity anomaly data from a DTM. These anomalies were adjusted by using the validated free-air gravity anomalies and, after that, applying the best fit in the least-square sense by geographical area, it was possible to obtain a uniform grid of free-air anomalies obtained from a DTM. After applying the topographic corrections, determining the indirect effect of topography and the contribution of the global geopotential model EGM2008, a grid of residual anomalies was obtained. These residual anomalies were used to determine the gravimetric geoid by using various techniques, among which are the planar approximation of the Stokes function and the modifications of the Stokes kernel, proposed by Wong y Gore (1969), Vanicek y Kleusberg (1987) and Featherstone et al. (1998). After determining the different gravimetric geoid models, it was necessary to validate them by using a series of stations of the Puerto Rico Vertical Datum of 2002 (PRVD02) leveling network. These stations had published its values of ellipsoidal height and elevation, and in the absence of orthometric heights, we use the elevations obtained from first - order leveling to determine the geometric geoid undulation (Roman et al., 2013). After determine a total of 990 baselines, two analyzes were performed to determine the ' accuracy ' of the geoid models. The first analysis was to analyze the differences between the increments of the geometric geoid undulation with the increments of the geoid undulation of the different geoid models (gravimetric models, EGM2008 and GEOID12A) in function of the distance between the validation stations. Through this analysis, it was determined that the model with the modified Stokes kernel given by Wong and Gore had the best 'accuracy' in 91,1% for the analyzed baselines. In the second analysis, in which we considered the 990 baselines, we analyze the differences between the increments of the geometric geoid undulation with the increments of the geoid undulation of the different geoid models (gravimetric models, EGM2008 and GEOID12A) finding that the model with the highest 'accuracy' was also the model with modifying Stokes kernel given by Wong and Gore. In this analysis, the Wong and Gore gravimetric geoid model presented an 'accuracy' of 0,027 meters in comparison with the 'accuracy' of global geopotential model EGM2008, which gave us an 'accuracy' of 0,031 meters, while the 'accuracy ' of the GEOID12A regional model was 0,057 meters. Finally we can say that the methodology presented here is adequate as it was possible to obtain a gravimetric geoid model that has a greater 'accuracy' than the geopotential models available, even surpassing the accuracy of global geopotential model EGM2008.

Characterization of Cavities Using the GPR, LIDAR and GNSS Techniques

The study of the many types of natural and manmade cavities in different parts of the world is important to the fields of geology, geophysics, engineering, architectures, agriculture, heritages and landscape. Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) is a noninvasive geodetection and geolocation technique suitable for accurately determining buried structures. This technique requires knowing the propagation velocity of electromagnetic waves (EM velocity) in the medium. We propose a method for calibrating the EM velocity using the integration of laser imaging detection and ranging (LIDAR) and GPR techniques using the Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) as support for geolocation. Once the EM velocity is known and the GPR profiles have been properly processed and migrated, they will also show the hidden cavities and the old hidden structures from the cellar. In this article, we present a complete study of the joint use of the GPR, LIDAR and GNSS techniques in the characterization of cavities. We apply this methodology to study underground cavities in a group of wine cellars located in Atauta (Soria, Spain). The results serve to identify construction elements that form the cavity and group of cavities or cellars. The described methodology could be applied to other shallow underground structures with surface connection, where LIDAR and GPR profiles could be joined, as, for example, in archaeological cavities, sewerage systems, drainpipes, etc.

Investigation of MEMS inertial sensors and aircraft dynamic models in global positioning system integrity monitoring for approaches with vertical guidance

An Approach with Vertical Guidance (APV) is an instrument approach procedure which provides horizontal and vertical guidance to a pilot on approach to landing in reduced visibility conditions. APV approaches can greatly reduce the safety risk to general aviation by improving the pilot’s situational awareness. In particular the incidence of Controlled Flight Into Terrain (CFIT) which has occurred in a number of fatal air crashes in general aviation over the past decade in Australia, can be reduced. APV approaches can also improve general aviation operations. If implemented at Australian airports, APV approach procedures are expected to bring a cost saving of millions of dollars to the economy due to fewer missed approaches, diversions and an increased safety benefit. The provision of accurate horizontal and vertical guidance is achievable using the Global Positioning System (GPS). Because aviation is a safety of life application, an aviation-certified GPS receiver must have integrity monitoring or augmentation to ensure that its navigation solution can be trusted. However, the difficulty with the current GPS satellite constellation alone meeting APV integrity requirements, the susceptibility of GPS to jamming or interference and the potential shortcomings of proposed augmentation solutions for Australia such as the Ground-based Regional Augmentation System (GRAS) justifies the investigation of Aircraft Based Augmentation Systems (ABAS) as an alternative integrity solution for general aviation. ABAS augments GPS with other sensors at the aircraft to help it meet the integrity requirements. Typical ABAS designs assume high quality inertial sensors to provide an accurate reference trajectory for Kalman filters. Unfortunately high-quality inertial sensors are too expensive for general aviation. In contrast to these approaches the purpose of this research is to investigate fusing GPS with lower-cost Micro-Electro-Mechanical System (MEMS) Inertial Measurement Units (IMU) and a mathematical model of aircraft dynamics, referred to as an Aircraft Dynamic Model (ADM) in this thesis. Using a model of aircraft dynamics in navigation systems has been studied before in the available literature and shown to be useful particularly for aiding inertial coasting or attitude determination. In contrast to these applications, this thesis investigates its use in ABAS. This thesis presents an ABAS architecture concept which makes use of a MEMS IMU and ADM, named the General Aviation GPS Integrity System (GAGIS) for convenience. GAGIS includes a GPS, MEMS IMU, ADM, a bank of Extended Kalman Filters (EKF) and uses the Normalized Solution Separation (NSS) method for fault detection. The GPS, IMU and ADM information is fused together in a tightly-coupled configuration, with frequent GPS updates applied to correct the IMU and ADM. The use of both IMU and ADM allows for a number of different possible configurations. Three are investigated in this thesis; a GPS-IMU EKF, a GPS-ADM EKF and a GPS-IMU-ADM EKF. The integrity monitoring performance of the GPS-IMU EKF, GPS-ADM EKF and GPS-IMU-ADM EKF architectures are compared against each other and against a stand-alone GPS architecture in a series of computer simulation tests of an APV approach. Typical GPS, IMU, ADM and environmental errors are simulated. The simulation results show the GPS integrity monitoring performance achievable by augmenting GPS with an ADM and low-cost IMU for a general aviation aircraft on an APV approach. A contribution to research is made in determining whether a low-cost IMU or ADM can provide improved integrity monitoring performance over stand-alone GPS. It is found that a reduction of approximately 50% in protection levels is possible using the GPS-IMU EKF or GPS-ADM EKF as well as faster detection of a slowly growing ramp fault on a GPS pseudorange measurement. A second contribution is made in determining how augmenting GPS with an ADM compares to using a low-cost IMU. By comparing the results for the GPS-ADM EKF against the GPS-IMU EKF it is found that protection levels for the GPS-ADM EKF were only approximately 2% higher. This indicates that the GPS-ADM EKF may potentially replace the GPS-IMU EKF for integrity monitoring should the IMU ever fail. In this way the ADM may contribute to the navigation system robustness and redundancy. To investigate this further, a third contribution is made in determining whether or not the ADM can function as an IMU replacement to improve navigation system redundancy by investigating the case of three IMU accelerometers failing. It is found that the failed IMU measurements may be supplemented by the ADM and adequate integrity monitoring performance achieved. Besides treating the IMU and ADM separately as in the GPS-IMU EKF and GPS-ADM EKF, a fourth contribution is made in investigating the possibility of fusing the IMU and ADM information together to achieve greater performance than either alone. This is investigated using the GPS-IMU-ADM EKF. It is found that the GPS-IMU-ADM EKF can achieve protection levels approximately 3% lower in the horizontal and 6% lower in the vertical than a GPS-IMU EKF. However this small improvement may not justify the complexity of fusing the IMU with an ADM in practical systems. Affordable ABAS in general aviation may enhance existing GPS-only fault detection solutions or help overcome any outages in augmentation systems such as the Ground-based Regional Augmentation System (GRAS). Countries such as Australia which currently do not have an augmentation solution for general aviation could especially benefit from the economic savings and safety benefits of satellite navigation-based APV approaches.

Using cubic splines to mitigate systematic errors in GPS relative positioning

Systematic errors can have a significant effect on GPS observable. In medium and long baselines the major systematic error source are the ionosphere and troposphere refraction and the GPS satellites orbit errors. But, in short baselines, the multipath is more relevant. These errors degrade the accuracy of the positioning accomplished by GPS. So, this is a critical problem for high precision GPS positioning applications. Recently, a method has been suggested to mitigate these errors: the semiparametric model and the penalised least squares technique. It uses a natural cubic spline to model the errors as a function which varies smoothly in time. The systematic errors functions, ambiguities and station coordinates, are estimated simultaneously. As a result, the ambiguities and the station coordinates are estimated with better reliability and accuracy than the conventional least square method.

Towards the development of a gas sensor system for monitoring pollutant gases in the low troposphere using small unmanned aerial vehicles

The world is facing problems due to the effects of increased atmospheric pollution, climate change and global warming. Innovative technologies to identify, quantify and assess fluxes exchange of the pollutant gases between the Earth’s surface and atmosphere are required. This paper proposes the development of a gas sensor system for a small UAV to monitor pollutant gases, collect data and geo-locate where the sample was taken. The prototype has two principal systems: a light portable gas sensor and an optional electric–solar powered UAV. The prototype will be suitable to: operate in the lower troposphere (100-500m); collect samples; stamp time and geo-locate each sample. One of the limitations of a small UAV is the limited power available therefore a small and low power consumption payload is designed and built for this research. The specific gases targeted in this research are NO2, mostly produce by traffic, and NH3 from farming, with concentrations above 0.05 ppm and 35 ppm respectively which are harmful to human health. The developed prototype will be a useful tool for scientists to analyse the behaviour and tendencies of pollutant gases producing more realistic models of them.

Improving the GNSS positioning stochastic model in the presence of ionospheric scintillation

Ionospheric scintillations are caused by time-varying electron density irregularities in the ionosphere, occurring more often at equatorial and high latitudes. This paper focuses exclusively on experiments undertaken in Europe, at geographic latitudes between similar to 50 degrees N and similar to 80 degrees N, where a network of GPS receivers capable of monitoring Total Electron Content and ionospheric scintillation parameters was deployed. The widely used ionospheric scintillation indices S4 and sigma(phi) represent a practical measure of the intensity of amplitude and phase scintillation affecting GNSS receivers. However, they do not provide sufficient information regarding the actual tracking errors that degrade GNSS receiver performance. Suitable receiver tracking models, sensitive to ionospheric scintillation, allow the computation of the variance of the output error of the receiver PLL (Phase Locked Loop) and DLL (Delay Locked Loop), which expresses the quality of the range measurements used by the receiver to calculate user position. The ability of such models of incorporating phase and amplitude scintillation effects into the variance of these tracking errors underpins our proposed method of applying relative weights to measurements from different satellites. That gives the least squares stochastic model used for position computation a more realistic representation, vis-a-vis the otherwise 'equal weights' model. For pseudorange processing, relative weights were computed, so that a 'scintillation-mitigated' solution could be performed and compared to the (non-mitigated) 'equal weights' solution. An improvement between 17 and 38% in height accuracy was achieved when an epoch by epoch differential solution was computed over baselines ranging from 1 to 750 km. The method was then compared with alternative approaches that can be used to improve the least squares stochastic model such as weighting according to satellite elevation angle and by the inverse of the square of the standard deviation of the code/carrier divergence (sigma CCDiv). The influence of multipath effects on the proposed mitigation approach is also discussed. With the use of high rate scintillation data in addition to the scintillation indices a carrier phase based mitigated solution was also implemented and compared with the conventional solution. During a period of occurrence of high phase scintillation it was observed that problems related to ambiguity resolution can be reduced by the use of the proposed mitigated solution.

Implementation of a drive-by monitoring system for transport infrastructure utilising GNSS

Ageing and deterioration of infrastructure is a challenge facing transport authorities. In particular, there is a need for increased bridge monitoring in order to provide adequate maintenance, prioritise allocation of funds and guarantee acceptable levels of transport safety. Existing bridge structural health monitoring (SHM) techniques typically involve direct instrumentation of the bridge with sensors and equipment for the measurement of properties such as frequencies of vibration. These techniques are important as they can indicate the deterioration of the bridge condition. However, they can be labour intensive and expensive due to the requirement for on-site installations. In recent years, alternative low-cost indirect vibrationbased SHM approaches have been proposed which utilise the dynamic response of a vehicle to carry out “drive-by” pavement and/or bridge monitoring. The vehicle is fitted with sensors on its axles thus reducing the need for on-site installations. This paper investigates the use of low-cost sensors incorporating global navigation satellite systems (GNSS) for implementation of the drive-by system in practice, via field trials with an instrumented vehicle. The potential of smartphone technology to be harnessed for drive by monitoring is established, while smartphone GNSS tracking applications are found to compare favourably in terms of accuracy, cost and ease of use to professional GNSS devices.

Secure tracking for critical applications : communications, GPS and future Galileo services

Tracking/remote monitoring systems using GNSS are a proven method to enhance the safety and security of personnel and vehicles carrying precious or hazardous cargo. While GNSS tracking appears to mitigate some of these threats, if not adequately secured, it can be a double-edged sword allowing adversaries to obtain sensitive shipment and vehicle position data to better coordinate their attacks, and to provide a false sense of security to monitoring centers. Tracking systems must be designed with the ability to perform route-compliance and thwart attacks ranging from low-level attacks such as the cutting of antenna cables to medium and high-level attacks involving radio jamming and signal / data-level simulation, especially where the goods transported have a potentially high value to terrorists. This paper discusses the use of GNSS in critical tracking applications, addressing the mitigation of GNSS security issues, augmentation systems and communication systems in order to provide highly robust and survivable tracking systems.