Determination of the hemispheric character (i.e. southern or northern latitudinal position) of equatorial ionosonde stations as deduced from long-term recordings of the minimum height of the F-region (h ' F)

The virtual (or minimum) height of the F-region (h'F), recorded over a number of solar cycles for I I equatorial and mid-latitude ionosonde stations, was used to deduce the hemispheric (i.e. southern or northern hemisphere) character of equatorial stations. The semi-annual median monthly height (h'F) variations consist of two components: major local summer maximum and winter sub-maximum (about 5 percent of the summer maximum). This hemispheric pattern was most consistently observed for equatorial stations (within 5degrees of the geomagnetic equator) in a period centred on the local midnight (21-03 LT) but was also present, to a lesser extent, at mid-latitude stations and at other time intervals. It is evident that the physical parameter h'F defines the hemispheric character of an equatorial station which has different (sometimes opposite) geographic and geomagnetic latitudes. There is a sharp transition in the latitudinal character of the stations on both sides of the equator leading to hypothesis that the equal maxima in h'F in December and June solstices are observed at a near-equator position labelled as ionosonde deduced equator (IDE). Such a signature was observed for an American equatorial (both geographic and geomagnetic) station Talara (Peru) which is an experimental support of the hypothesis. The IDE can be another useful parameter characterising the equatorial ionosphere. This finding reveals a new application of the standard ionosonde data in defining the geophysical character of equatorial stations, being an important contribution to space climatology. (C) 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Petrology and geochemistry of the Bandas del Sur Formation, Las Canadas Edifice, Tenerife (Canary Islands)

The Bandas del Sur Formation preserves a Quaternary extra-caldera record of central phonolitic explosive volcanism of the Las Canadas volcano at Tenerife. Volcanic rocks are bimodal in composition, being predominantly phonolitic pyroclastic deposits, several eruptions of which resulted in summit caldera collapse, alkali basaltic lavas erupted from many fissures around the flanks. For the pyroclastic deposits, there is a broad range of pumice glass compositions from phonotephrite to phonolite. The phonolite pyroclastic deposits are also characterized by a diverse, 7-8-phase phenocryst assemblage (alkali feldspar + biotite + sodian diopside + titanomagnetite + ilmenite + nosean-hauyne + titanite + apatite) with alkali feldspar dominant, in contrast to interbedded phonolite lavas that typically have lower phenocryst contents and lack hydrous phases. Petrological and geochemical data are consistent with fractional crystallization (involving the observed phenocryst assemblages) as the dominant process in the development of phonolite magmas. New stratigraphically constrained data indicate that petrological and geochemical differences exist between pyroclastic deposits of the last two explosive cycles of phonolitic volcanism. Cycle 2 (0.85-0.57 Ma) pyroclastic fall deposits commonly show a cryptic compositional zonation indicating that several eruptions tapped chemically, and probably thermally stratified magma systems. Evidence for magma mixing is most widespread in the pyroclastic deposits of Cycle 3 (0.37-0.17 Ma), which includes the presence of reversely and normally zoned phenocrysts, quenched mafic glass blebs in pumice, banded pumice, and bimodal to polymodal phenocryst compositional populations. Syn-eruptive mixing events involved mostly phonolite and tephriphonolite magmas, whereas a pre-eruptive mixing event involving basaltic magma is recorded in several banded pumice-bearing ignimbrites of Cycle 3. The periodic addition and mixing of basaltic magma ultimately may have triggered several eruptions. Recharge and underplating by basaltic magma is interpreted to have elevated sulphur contents (occurring as an exsolved gas phase) in the capping phonolitic magma reservoir. This promoted nosean-hauyne crystallization over nepheline, elevated SO3 contents in apatite, and possibly resulted in large, climatologically important SO2 emissions.

Cenozoic continental weathering and its implications for the palaeoclimate: evidence from Ar-40/Ar-39 geochronology of supergene K-Mn oxides in Mt Tabor, central Queensland, Australia

One hundred and twenty-five mineral grains from 45 visually pure K-bearing Mn oxide (hollandite group) samples collected from weathering profiles in the Mt Tabor region of central Queensland, Australia, were analysed by the Ar-40/Ar-39 laser probe technique. These K-Mn oxides precipitated mainly through a process of cavity filling (direct precipitation from weathering solution), with botryoidal texture formed by micrometric mineral bands. Well-defined and reproducible plateau ages have been obtained for most samples, ranging from 27.2 +/- 0.8 to 6.8 +/- 0.5 Ma (2 sigma). Statistical analysis of the geochronological results by mixture modelling suggests an episodic mineral precipitation history, with two major peaks at 20.2 +/- 0.22 Ma and 16.5 +/- 0.17 Ma. The geochronological results, when combined with information on paragenetic relationships and mineralogical textures obtained from petrographic, scanning electron microscopy, and electron microprobe investigations, indicate that warm and humid palaeoclimatic conditions favourable to intense chemical weathering prevailed in central Queensland from late Oligocene to middle Miocene, particularly in the early Miocene. These results, in conjunction with previous and ongoing investigations in NW and eastern Queensland, suggest that most of Queensland was dominated by humid climates during the Miocene. (C) 2002 Elsevier Science BN. All rights reserved.

Tungsten isotope evidence from similar to 3.8-Gyr metamorphosed sediments for early meteorite bombardment of the Earth

The 'Late Heavy Bombardment' was a phase in the impact history of the Moon that occurred 3.8-4.0 Gyr ago, when the lunar basins with known dates were formed(1,2). But no record of this event has yet been reported from the few surviving rocks of this age on the Earth. Here we report tungsten isotope anomalies, based on the Hf-182-W-182 system (half-life of 9 Myr), in metamorphosed sedimentary rocks from the 3.7-3.8-Gyr-old Isua greenstone belt of West Greenland and closely related rocks from northern Labrador, Canada. As it is difficult to conceive of a mechanism by which tungsten isotope heterogeneities could have been preserved in the Earth's dynamic crust-mantle environment from a time when short-lived Hf-182 was still present, we conclude that the metamorphosed sediments contain a component derived from meteorites.

New W-isotope evidence for rapid terrestrial accretion and very early core formation

The short-lived Hf-182-W-182-isotope system is an ideal clock to trace core formation and accretion processes of planets. Planetary accretion and metal/silicate fractionation chronologies are calculated relative to the chondritic Hf-182-W-182-isotope evolution. Here, we report new high-precision W-isotope data for the carbonaceous chondrite Allende that are much less radiogenic than previously reported and are in good agreement with published internal Hf-W chronometry of enstatite chondrites. If the W-isotope composition of terrestrial rocks, representing the bulk silicate Earth, is homogeneous and 2.24 epsilon(182W) units more radiogenic than that of the bulk Earth, metal/silicate differentiation of the Earth occurred very early. The new W-isotope data constrain the mean time of terrestrial core formation to 34 million years after the start of solar system accretion. Early terrestrial core formation implies rapid terrestrial accretion, thus permitting formation of the Moon by giant impact while Hf-182 was still alive. This could explain why lunar W-isotopes are more radiogenic than the terrestrial value. Copyright (C) 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd.

Lamproites from Gaussberg, Antarctica: Possible transition zone melts of Archaean subducted sediments

Petrogenetic models for the origin of lamproites are evaluated using new major element, trace element, and Sr, Nd, and Pb isotope data for Holocene lamproites from the Gaussberg volcano in the East Antarctic Shield. Gaussberg lamproites exhibit very unusual Pb isotope compositions (Pb-206/Pb-204 = 17.44-17.55 and Pb-207/Pb-204 = 15.56-15.63), which in common Pb isotope space plot above mantle evolution lines and to the left of the meteorite isochron. Combined with very unradiogenic Nd, such compositions are shown to be inconsistent with an origin by melting of sub-continental lithospheric mantle. Instead, a model is proposed in which late Archaean continent-derived sediment is subducted as K-hollandite and other ultra-high-pressure phases and sequestered in the Transition Zone (or lower mantle) where it is effectively isolated for 2-3 Gyr. The high Pb-207/Pb-204 ratio is thus inherited from ancient continent-derived sediment, and the relatively low Pb-206/Pb-204 ratio is the result of a single stage of U/Pb fractionation by subduction-related U loss during slab dehydration. Sr and Nd isotope ratios, and trace element characteristics (e.g. Nb/Ta ratios) are consistent with sediment subduction and dehydration-related fractionation. Similar models that use variable time of isolation of subducted sediment can be derived for all lamproites. Our interpretation of lamproite sources has important implications for ocean island basalt petrogenesis as well as the preservation of geochemically anomalous reservoirs in the mantle.

On the overabundance of light rare earth elements in terrestrial zircons and its implication for Earth's earliest magmatic differentiation

We present whole-rock and zircon rare earth element (REE) data from two early Archaean gneisses (3.81 Ga and 3.64 Ga) from the Itsaq gneiss complex, south-west Greenland. Both gneisses represent extremely rare examples of unaltered, fresh and relatively undeformed igneous rocks of such antiquity. Cathodoluminescence imaging of their zircons indicates a single crystallisation episode with no evidence for either later metamorphic and/or anatectic reworking or inheritance of earlier grains. Uniform, single-population U/Pb age data confirm the structural simplicity of these zircons. One sample, a 3.64 Ga granodioritic gneiss from the Gothabsfjord, yields a chondrite-normalised REE pattern with a positive slope from La to Lu as well as substantial positive Ce and slight negative Eu anomalies, features generally considered to be typical of igneous zircon. In contrast, the second sample, a 3.81 Ga tonalite from south of the Isua Greenstone Belt, has variable but generally much higher light REE abundances, with similar middle to heavy REE. Calculation of zircon/melt distribution coefficients (D-REE(zircon/melt)) from each sample yields markedly different values for the trivalent REE (i.e. Ce and Eu omitted) and simple application of one set of D-REE(zircon/melt) to model the melt composition for the other sample yields concentrations that are in error by up to two orders of magnitude for the light REE (La-Nd). The observed light REE overabundance in the 3.81 Ga tonalite is a commonly observed feature in terrestrial zircons for which a number of explanations ranging from lattice strain to disequilibrium crystallisation have been proposed and are further investigated herein. Regardless of the cause of light REE overabundance, our study shows that simple application of zircon/melt distribution coefficients is not an unambiguous method for ascertaining original melt composition. In this context, recent studies that use REE data to claim that > 4.3 Ga Hadean detrital zircons originally crystallised from an evolved magma, in turn suggesting the operation of geological processes in the early Earth analogous to those of the present day (e.g. subduction and melting of hydrated oceanic crust), must be regarded with caution. Indeed, comparison of terrestrial Hadean and > 3.9 Ga lunar highland zircons shows remarkable similarities in the light REE, even though subduction processes that have been used to explain the terrestrial zircons have never operated on the Moon. (C) 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Applications of accurate, high-precision Pb isotope ratio measurement by multi-collector ICP-MS

The isotope composition of Ph is difficult to determine accurately due to the lack of a stable normalisation ratio. Double and triple-spike addition techniques provide one solution and presently yield the most accurate measurements. A number of recent studies have claimed that improved accuracy and precision could also be achieved by multi-collector ICP-MS (MC-ICP-MS) Pb-isotope analysis using the addition of Tl of known isotope composition to Pb samples. In this paper, we verify whether the known isotope composition of Tl can be used for correction of mass discrimination of Pb with an extensive dataset for the NIST standard SRM 981, comparison of MC-ICP-MS with TIMS data, and comparison with three isochrons from different geological environments. When all our NIST SRM 981 data are normalised with one constant Tl-205/Tl-203 of 2.38869, the following averages and reproducibilities were obtained: Pb-207/Pb-206=0.91461+/-18; Pb-208/Ph-206 = 2.1674+/-7; and (PbPh)-Pb-206-Ph-204 = 16.941+/-6. These two sigma standard deviations of the mean correspond to 149, 330, and 374 ppm, respectively. Accuracies relative to triple-spike values are 149, 157, and 52 ppm, respectively, and thus well within uncertainties. The largest component of the uncertainties stems from the Ph data alone and is not caused by differential mass discrimination behaviour of Ph and Tl. In routine operation, variation of sample introduction memory and production of isobaric molecular interferences in the spectrometer's collision cell currently appear to be the ultimate limitation to better reproducibility. Comparative study of five different datasets from actual samples (bullets, international rock standards, carbonates, metamorphic minerals, and sulphide minerals) demonstrates that in most cases geological scatter of the sample exceeds the achieved analytical reproducibility. We observe good agreement between TIMS and MC-ICP-MS data for international rock standards but find that such comparison does not constitute the ultimate. test for the validity of the MC-ICP-MS technique. Two attempted isochrons resulted in geological scatter (in one case small) in excess of analytical reproducibility. However, in one case (leached Great Dyke sulphides) we obtained a true isochron (MSWD = 0.63) age of 2578.3 +/- 0.9 Ma, which is identical to and more precise than a recently published U-Pb zircon age (2579 3 Ma) for a Great Dyke websterite [Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 180 (2000) 1-12]. Reproducibility of this age by means of an isochron we regard as a robust test of accuracy over a wide dynamic range. We show that reliable and accurate Pb-isotope data can be obtained by careful operation of second-generation MC-ICP magnetic sector mass spectrometers. (C) 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Fluid-mobile trace element constraints on the role of slab melting and implications for Archaean crustal growth models

We use published and new trace element data to identify element ratios which discriminate between arc magmas from the supra-subduction zone mantle wedge and those formed by direct melting of subducted crust (i.e. adakites). The clearest distinction is obtained with those element ratios which are strongly fractionated during refertilisation of the depleted mantle wedge, ultimately reflecting slab dehydration. Hence, adakites have significantly lower Pb/Nd and B/Be but higher Nb/Ta than typical arc magmas and continental crust as a whole. Although Li and Be are also overenriched in continental crust, behaviour of Li/Yb and Be/Nd is more complex and these ratios do not provide unique signatures of slab melting. Archaean tonalite-trondhjemite-granodiorites (TTGs) strongly resemble ordinary mantle wedge-derived arc magmas in terms of fluid-mobile trace element content, implying that they-did not form by slab melting but that they originated from mantle which was hydrated and enriched in elements lost from slabs during prograde dehydration. We suggest that Archaean TTGs formed by extensive fractional crystallisation from a mafic precursor. It is widely claimed that the time between the creation and subduction of oceanic lithosphere was significantly shorter in the Archaean (i.e. 20 Ma) than it is today. This difference was seen as an attractive explanation for the presumed preponderance of adakitic magmas during the first half of Earth's history. However, when we consider the effects of a higher potential mantle temperature on the thickness of oceanic crust, it follows that the mean age of oceanic lithosphere has remained virtually constant. Formation of adakites has therefore always depended on local plate geometry and not on potential mantle temperature.

Stress correlation function evolution in lattice solid elasto-dynamic models of shear and fracture zones and earthquake prediction

It has been argued that power-law time-to-failure fits for cumulative Benioff strain and an evolution in size-frequency statistics in the lead-up to large earthquakes are evidence that the crust behaves as a Critical Point (CP) system. If so, intermediate-term earthquake prediction is possible. However, this hypothesis has not been proven. If the crust does behave as a CP system, stress correlation lengths should grow in the lead-up to large events through the action of small to moderate ruptures and drop sharply once a large event occurs. However this evolution in stress correlation lengths cannot be observed directly. Here we show, using the lattice solid model to describe discontinuous elasto-dynamic systems subjected to shear and compression, that it is for possible correlation lengths to exhibit CP-type evolution. In the case of a granular system subjected to shear, this evolution occurs in the lead-up to the largest event and is accompanied by an increasing rate of moderate-sized events and power-law acceleration of Benioff strain release. In the case of an intact sample system subjected to compression, the evolution occurs only after a mature fracture system has developed. The results support the existence of a physical mechanism for intermediate-term earthquake forecasting and suggest this mechanism is fault-system dependent. This offers an explanation of why accelerating Benioff strain release is not observed prior to all large earthquakes. The results prove the existence of an underlying evolution in discontinuous elasto-dynamic, systems which is capable of providing a basis for forecasting catastrophic failure and earthquakes.

Simulation of the load-unload response ratio and critical sensitivity in the lattice solid model

The Load-Unload Response Ratio (LURR) method is an intermediate-term earthquake prediction approach that has shown considerable promise. It involves calculating the ratio of a specified energy release measure during loading and unloading where loading and unloading periods are determined from the earth tide induced perturbations in the Coulomb Failure Stress on optimally oriented faults. In the lead-up to large earthquakes, high LURR values are frequently observed a few months or years prior to the event. These signals may have a similar origin to the observed accelerating seismic moment release (AMR) prior to many large earthquakes or may be due to critical sensitivity of the crust when a large earthquake is imminent. As a first step towards studying the underlying physical mechanism for the LURR observations, numerical studies are conducted using the particle based lattice solid model (LSM) to determine whether LURR observations can be reproduced. The model is initialized as a heterogeneous 2-D block made up of random-sized particles bonded by elastic-brittle links. The system is subjected to uniaxial compression from rigid driving plates on the upper and lower edges of the model. Experiments are conducted using both strain and stress control to load the plates. A sinusoidal stress perturbation is added to the gradual compressional loading to simulate loading and unloading cycles and LURR is calculated. The results reproduce signals similar to those observed in earthquake prediction practice with a high LURR value followed by a sudden drop prior to macroscopic failure of the sample. The results suggest that LURR provides a good predictor for catastrophic failure in elastic-brittle systems and motivate further research to study the underlying physical mechanisms and statistical properties of high LURR values. The results provide encouragement for earthquake prediction research and the use of advanced simulation models to probe the physics of earthquakes.

Long-range automaton models of earthquakes: Power-law accelerations, correlation evolution, and mode-switching

We introduce a conceptual model for the in-plane physics of an earthquake fault. The model employs cellular automaton techniques to simulate tectonic loading, earthquake rupture, and strain redistribution. The impact of a hypothetical crustal elastodynamic Green's function is approximated by a long-range strain redistribution law with a r(-p) dependance. We investigate the influence of the effective elastodynamic interaction range upon the dynamical behaviour of the model by conducting experiments with different values of the exponent (p). The results indicate that this model has two distinct, stable modes of behaviour. The first mode produces a characteristic earthquake distribution with moderate to large events preceeded by an interval of time in which the rate of energy release accelerates. A correlation function analysis reveals that accelerating sequences are associated with a systematic, global evolution of strain energy correlations within the system. The second stable mode produces Gutenberg-Richter statistics, with near-linear energy release and no significant global correlation evolution. A model with effectively short-range interactions preferentially displays Gutenberg-Richter behaviour. However, models with long-range interactions appear to switch between the characteristic and GR modes. As the range of elastodynamic interactions is increased, characteristic behaviour begins to dominate GR behaviour. These models demonstrate that evolution of strain energy correlations may occur within systems with a fixed elastodynamic interaction range. Supposing that similar mode-switching dynamical behaviour occurs within earthquake faults then intermediate-term forecasting of large earthquakes may be feasible for some earthquakes but not for others, in alignment with certain empirical seismological observations. Further numerical investigation of dynamical models of this type may lead to advances in earthquake forecasting research and theoretical seismology.

Simulation of the micro-physics of rocks using LSMearth

The particle-based Lattice Solid Model (LSM) was developed to provide a basis to study the physics of rocks and the nonlinear dynamics of earthquakes (MORA and PLACE, 1994; PLACE and MORA, 1999). A new modular and flexible LSM approach has been developed that allows different microphysics to be easily included in or removed from the model. The approach provides a virtual laboratory where numerical experiments can easily be set up and all measurable quantities visualised. The proposed approach provides a means to simulate complex phenomena such as fracturing or localisation processes, and enables the effect of different micro-physics on macroscopic behaviour to be studied. The initial 2-D model is extended to allow three-dimensional simulations to be performed and particles of different sizes to be specified. Numerical bi-axial compression experiments under different confining pressure are used to calibrate the model. By tuning the different microscopic parameters (such as coefficient of friction, microscopic strength and distribution of grain sizes), the macroscopic strength of the material and can be adjusted to be in agreement with laboratory experiments, and the orientation of fractures is consistent with the theoretical value predicted based on Mohr-Coulomb diagram. Simulations indicate that 3-D numerical models have different macroscopic properties than in 2-D and, hence, the model must be recalibrated for 3-D simulations. These numerical experiments illustrate that the new approach is capable of simulating typical rock fracture behaviour. The new model provides a basis to investigate nucleation, rupture and slip pulse propagation in complex fault zones without the previous model limitations of a regular low-level surface geometry and being restricted to two-dimensions.