Neuroscience and education: prime time to build the bridge

As neuroscience gains social traction and entices media attention, the notion that education has much to benefit from brain research becomes increasingly popular. However, it has been argued that the fundamental bridge toward education is cognitive psychology, not neuroscience. We discuss four specific cases in which neuroscience synergizes with other disciplines to serve education, ranging from very general physiological aspects of human learning such as nutrition, exercise and sleep, to brain architectures that shape the way we acquire language and reading, and neuroscience tools that increasingly allow the early detection of cognitive deficits, especially in preverbal infants. Neuroscience methods, tools and theoretical frameworks have broadened our understanding of the mind in a way that is highly relevant to educational practice. Although the bridge’s cement is still fresh, we argue why it is prime time to march over it.

Neuroscience and education: prime time to build the bridge

As neuroscience gains social traction and entices media attention, the notion that education has much to benefit from brain research becomes increasingly popular. However, it has been argued that the fundamental bridge toward education is cognitive psychology, not neuroscience. We discuss four specific cases in which neuroscience synergizes with other disciplines to serve education, ranging from very general physiological aspects of human learning such as nutrition, exercise and sleep, to brain architectures that shape the way we acquire language and reading, and neuroscience tools that increasingly allow the early detection of cognitive deficits, especially in preverbal infants. Neuroscience methods, tools and theoretical frameworks have broadened our understanding of the mind in a way that is highly relevant to educational practice. Although the bridge’s cement is still fresh, we argue why it is prime time to march over it.

Novel insights on functions of myotilin/palladin family members

Poikkijuovaisen luuranko- ja sydänlihaksen supistumisyksikkö, sarkomeeri, koostuu tarkoin järjestyneistä aktiini- ja myosiinisäikeistä. Rakenne eroaa muista solutyypeistä, joissa aktiinisäikeistö muovautuu jatkuvasti ja sen järjestyminen säätelee solun muotoa, solujakautumista, soluliikettä ja solunsisäisten organellien kuljetusta. Myotilin, palladin ja myopalladin kuuluvat proteiiniperheeseen, jonka yhteispiirteenä ovat immunoglobuliinin kaltaiset (Igl) domeenit. Proteiinit liittyvät aktiinitukirankaan ja niiden arvellaan toimivan solutukirangan rakenne-elementteinä ja säätelijöinä. Myotilinia ja myopalladinia ilmennetään poikkijuovaisessa lihaksessa. Sen sijaan palladinin eri silmukointimuotoja tavataan monissa kudostyypeissä kuten hermostossa, ja eri muodoilla saattaa olla solutyypistä riippuvia tehtäviä. Poikkijuovaisessa lihaksessa kaikki perheen jäsenet sijaitsevat aktiinisäikeitä yhdistävässä Z-levyssä ja ne sitovat Z-levyn rakenneproteiinia, -aktiniinia. Myotilingeenin pistemutaatiot johtavat periytyviin lihastauteihin, kun taas palladinin mutaatioiden on kuvattu liittyvän periytyvään haimasyöpään ja lisääntyneeseen sydäninfarktin riskiin. Tässä tutkimuksessa selvitettin myotilinin ja pallainin toimintaa. Kokeissa löydettiin uusia palladinin 90-92kDa alatyyppiin sitoutuvia proteiineja. Yksi niistä on aktiinidynamiikkaa säätelevä profilin. Profilinilla on kahdenlaisia tehtäviä; se edesauttaa aktiinisäikeiden muodostumista, mutta se voi myös eristää yksittäisiä aktiinimolekyylejä ja edistää säikeiden hajoamista. Solutasolla palladinin ja profilinin sijainti on yhtenevä runsaasti aktiinia sisältävillä solujen reuna-alueilla. Palladinin ja profilinin sidos on heikko ja hyvin dynaaminen, joka sopii palladinin tehtävään aktiinisäideiden muodostumisen koordinoijana. Toinen palladinin sitoutumiskumppani on aktiinisäikeitä yhteensitova -aktiniini. -Aktiniini liittää solutukirangan solukalvon proteiineihin ja ankkuroi solunsisäisiä viestintämolekyylejä. Sitoutumista välittävä alue on hyvin samankaltainen palladinissa ja myotilinissa. Luurankolihaksen liiallinen toistuva venytys muuttaa Z-levyjen rakennetta ja muotoa. Prosessin aikana syntyy uusia aktiinifilamenttejä sisältäviä tiivistymiä ja lopulta uusia sarkomeereja. Löydöstemme perusteella myotilinin uudelleenjärjestyminen noudattaa aktiinin muutoksia. Tämä viittaa siihen, että myotilin liittää yhteen uudismuodostuvia aktiinisäikeitä ja vakauttaa niitä. Myotilin saattaa myös ankkuroida viesti- tai rakennemolekyylejä, joiden tehtävänä on edesauttaa Z-levyjen uudismuodostusta. Tulostemme perusteella arvelemme, että myotilin toimii Z-levyjen rakenteen vakaajana ja aktiinisäikeiden säätelijänä. Palladinin puute johtaa sikiöaikaiseen kuolemaan hiirillä, mutta myotilinin puutoksella ei ole samanlaisia vaikutuksia. Tuotettujen myotilin poistogeenisten hiirten todetiin syntyvän ja kehittyvän normaalisti eikä niillä esiintynyt rakenteellisia tai toiminnallisia häiriöitä. Toisaalta aiemmissa kokeissa, joissa hiirille on siirretty ihmisen lihastautia aikaansaava myotilingeeni, nähdään samankaltaisia kuin sairailla ihmisillä. Näin ollen muuntunut myotilin näyttä olevan lihaksen toiminnalle haitallisempi kuin myotilinin puute. Myotilinin ja palladinin yhteisvaikutusta selvittääksemme risteytimme myotilin poistegeenisen hiiren ja hiirilinjan, joka ilmentää puutteellisesti palladinin 200 kDa muotoa. Puutteellisesti 200 kDa palladinia ilmentävien hiirten sydänlihaksessa todettiin vähäisiä hienorakenteen muutoksia, mutta risteytetyillä hiirillä tavattiin rakenteellisia ja toiminnallisia muutoksia myös luurankolihaksessa. Tulosten perusteella voidaan todeta, että palladinin 200 kDa muoto säätelee sydänlihassolujen rakennetta. Luurankolihaksessa sen sijaan myotilinilla ja palladinilla näyttäisi olevan päällekkäisiä tehtäviä.

Os crimes no triângulo amoroso: uma discussão psicanalítica historicamente contextualizada a respeito do conceito de violenta emoção no Direito Penal Brasileiro

A presente tese tem o objetivo de promover uma análise sobre a norma penal brasileira que versa sobre a violenta emoção, com base no estudo teórico da ação criminal passional. Tem por objeto de estudos a discussão sobre a temporalidade psíquica da ação que sustenta as distinções no instituto jurídico da violenta emoção apresentada nos artigos 28; 65, III, c; 121 1 e 129 4 do Código Penal Brasileiro. A partir de uma construção genealógica, buscou-se os antecedentes históricos dessas leis, posteriormente, interpretadas à luz de conceitos psicanalíticos e de contribuições da antropologia social acerca do imaginário cultural que sustenta a eclosão e o julgamento de crimes na esfera amorosa. O método de trabalho consistiu em um estudo teórico de caráter dedutivo-construtivo baseado em fontes oriundas de diferentes campos teórico-práticos e também de consultas abertas feitas a juristas e estudiosos da criminologia. As transformações históricas nos julgamentos indicam uma transposição da antiga indulgência em relação aos criminosos ao atual apelo por recrudescimento das penas, demonstrando que justificar ou punir crimes sob a rubrica da violenta emoção ligados à esfera amorosa representa um sintoma atrelado ao contexto social. O conceito de "violenta emoção" está sujeito a reducionismos teóricos, devido à ênfase dada à dimensão da "culpabilidade consciente" no sistema jurídico, ao predomínio de interpretações ligadas aos aspectos psicofisiológicos do ímpeto, bem como à incipiente atenção dada às condições inconscientes culturalmente determinantes do ato criminal violento em casais. Desse modo, o texto dos referidos artigos pode servir indevidamente à diminuição da pena em crimes envolvendo casais, assim como a devida atenuação pode ser desconsiderada quando a/o ré/u sofre de privações sociais e psíquicas prolongadas constitutivas de um mal-estar passional por vezes dissociado do tempo da ação. Com as limitações apontadas, reconhece-se a importância da existência da referência à violenta emoção enquanto uma atenuante criminal genérica e critica-se a sua aplicação como "privilégio" de diminuição de pena em crimes de ímpeto em casais. O estudo psicanalítico historicizado do tema assevera a necessidade de realçar tanto a responsabilidade subjetiva ligada à atualização de um potencial psicopatológico, mas, também, a responsabilidade social em relação aos crimes passionais, enfatizando a importância de se criar alternativas à resposta penal, buscando promover uma leitura e interpretação cuidadosa dos artigos sobre a violenta emoção no sentido de propiciar melhor entendimento da temporalidade inconsciente inerente a esses crimes.

Frequência cardíaca e exercício: aspectos prognósticos e interações com tônus vagal cardíaco

A frequência cardíaca (FC) no repouso (FC Rep), no exercício máximo (FC Max) e após o exercício (FC Rec) traz importantes informações para a saúde, e parte dessas respostas é modulada pelo tônus vagal cardíaco (TVC), que também oferece proteção cardíaca. Para uma melhor compreensão dos aspectos prognósticos da FC e de suas interações com o TVC, foram realizados três estudos: dois retrospectivos e um ensaio clínico randomizado. O primeiro testou se o TVC, estimado utilizando o índice vagal cardíaco (IVC), contribui para a FC Max (% do previsto: 208-0,7 x idade (anos)) em 1000 indivíduos saudáveis (39 14 anos; 719 homens). Regressão linear identificou que TVC explica apenas 1% da variabilidade da FC Max (% do previsto), com erro padrão da estimativa alto (~ 6,3%), indicando potencial papel complementar clínico para essas duas variáveis relacionadas ao exercício. O segundo estudo verificou se a análise de mortalidade utilizando FC de reserva (FC Res) e FC Rec de forma combinada descriminaria melhor a mortalidade que a análise de um destes itens e forma isolada. Dados de FC Res e FC Rec de 1.476 indivíduos (41 a 79 anos, 937 homens) foram calculados e divididos em quintis, os quais somados forneceram categorias de 2 a 10, produzindo um gradiente da FC (FC Grad) e refletindo a magnitude dos transientes iniciais e finais do exercício máximo. Análises de sobrevida foram realizadas usando os quintis mais baixos (Q1) dos escores do Grad FC, FC Res e FC Rec. Em um seguimento médio de 7,3 anos, 44 participantes morreram (3,1%). Houve uma tendência inversa entre os escores do Grad FC e a taxa de mortalidade (p<0,05), que passou de 1,2% para 13,5%, respectivamente, para os escores 10 e 2. Uma pontuação no Grad FC de 2 foi melhor preditor de mortalidade por todas as causas, quando comparado ao Q1 da FC Res e da FC Rec, com riscos relativos ajustados pela idade de 3,53 (p=0,01); 2,52 (p<0,05) e 2,57(p<0,05), respectivamente. Conclusão: Grad FC é um preditor de risco de mortalidade por todas as causas com desempenho superior ao das medidas isoladas de FC Res e FC Rec. Por último verificou-se a hipótese do aumento do TVC em participantes de um programa de exercício supervisionado (PES) com IVC baixo (≤ 1,30), através de um treinamento específico, utilizando a transição repouso-exercício no protocolo denominado treinamento vagal (TV). Estes foram randomizados num delineamento cruzado (duas etapas de oito semanas), com ou sem três sessões semanais de TV. Houve discreta melhora no IVC em 16 semanas (1,19 vs 1,22; p=0,02) dos 44 pacientes (64% homens; 65,5 11,4 anos) que finalizaram o estudo, mas não se pôde afirmar que a diferença no IVC se deveu ao período em que foi realizado o TV (p=0,36). Portanto, 16 semanas de PES, incluindo oito semanas com TV, aumentam a resposta vagal à transição repouso-exercício, embora não tenha sido possível atribuir os resultados exclusivamente ao TV. Os três estudos realizados contribuem para melhor compreensão da relevante interação entre FC, TVC e exercício

Microphysiological modeling of the reproductive tract: A fertile endeavor

Preclinical toxicity testing in animal models is a cornerstone of the drug development process, yet it is often unable to predict adverse effects and tolerability issues in human subjects. Species-specific responses to investigational drugs have led researchers to utilize human tissues and cells to better estimate human toxicity. Unfortunately, human cell-derived models are imperfect because toxicity is assessed in isolation, removed from the normal physiologic microenvironment. Microphysiological modeling often referred to as 'organ-on-a-chip' or 'human-on-a-chip' places human tissue into a microfluidic system that mimics the complexity of human in vivo physiology, thereby allowing for toxicity testing on several cell types, tissues, and organs within a more biologically relevant environment. Here we describe important concepts when developing a repro-on-a-chip model. The development of female and male reproductive microfluidic systems is critical to sex-based in vitro toxicity and drug testing. This review addresses the biological and physiological aspects of the male and female reproductive systems in vivo and what should be considered when designing a microphysiological human-on-a-chip model. Additionally, interactions between the reproductive tract and other systems are explored, focusing on the impact of factors and hormones produced by the reproductive tract and disease pathophysiology.

Electrophysiological correlates of performance monitoring in middle and late adolescence

The ability to monitor and evaluate the consequences of ongoing behaviors and coordinate behavioral adjustments seems to rely on networks including the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and phasic changes in dopamine activity. Activity (and presumably functional maturation) of the ACC may be indirectly measured using the error-related negativity (ERN), an event-related potential (ERP) component that is hypothesized to reflect activity of the automatic response monitoring system. To date, no studies have examined the measurement reliability of the ERN as a trait-like measure of response monitoring, its development in mid- and late- adolescence as well as its relation to risk-taking and empathic ability, two traits linked to dopaminergic and ACC activity. Utilizing a large sample of 15- and 18-year-old males, the present study examined the test-retest reliability of the ERN, age-related changes in the ERN and other components of the ERP associated with error monitoring (the Pe and CRN), and the relations of the error-related ERP components to personality traits of risk propensity and empathy. Results indicated good test-retest reliability of the ERN providing important validation of the ERN as a stable and possibly trait-like electrophysiological correlate of performance monitoring. Ofthe three components, only the ERN was of greater amplitude for the older adolescents suggesting that its ACC network is functionally late to mature, due to either structural or neurochemical changes with age. Finally, the ERN was smaller for those with high risk propensity and low empathy, while other components associated with error monitoring were not, which suggests that poor ACe function may be associated with the desire to engage in risky behaviors and the ERN may be influenced by the extent of individuals' concern with the outcome of events.

Autonomic and electrocortical indices of performance monitoring and source memory discrimination in older and younger adults

Reduced capacity for executive cognitive function and for the autonomic control of cardiac responsivity are both concomitants of the aging process. These may be linked through their mutual dependence on medial prefrontal function, but the specifics ofthat linkage have not been well explored. Executive functions associated with medial prefrontal cortex involve various aspects ofperformance monitoring, whereas centrally mediated autonomic functions can be observed as heart rate variability (HRV), i.e., variability in the length of intervals between heart beats. The focus for this thesis was to examine the degree to which the capacity for phasic autonomic adjustments to heart rate relates to performance monitoring in younger and older adults, using measures of electrocortical and autonomic activity. Behavioural performance and attention allocation during two age-sensitive tasks could be predicted by various aspects of autonomic control. For young adults, greater influence of the parasympathetic system on HRV was beneficial for learning unfamiliar maze paths; for older adults, greater sympathetic influence was detrimental to these functions. Further, these relationships were primarily evoked when the task required the construction and use of internalized representations of mazes rather than passive responses to feedback. When memory for source was required, older adults made three times as many source errors as young adults. However, greater parasympathetic influence on HRV in the older group was conducive to avoiding source errors and to reduced electrocortical responses to irrelevant information. Higher sympathetic predominance, in contrast, was associated with higher rates of source error and greater electrocortical responses tq non-target information in both groups. These relations were not seen for 11 errors associated with a speeded perceptual task, irrespective of its difficulty level. Overall, autonomic modulation of cardiac activity was associated with higher levels of performance monitoring, but differentially across tasks and age groups. With respect to age, those older adults who had maintained higher levels of autonomic cardiac regulation appeared to have also maintained higher levels of executive control over task performance.

An electrophysiological investigation into the influence of affect on the attentional blink

Accuracy at identifying or detecting a second-target (T2) is reduced if presented within approximately 500 ms of the first target (TI) - an attentional blink (AB). Affect has previously been shown to influence the magnitude of the AB such that positive affect (PA) is associated with smaller ABs. To account for these findings, Olivers and Nieuwenhuis (2005) proposed an overinvestment hypothesis where P A was said to reduce overinvestment of attentional resources in TI and distractors, leaving more resources for T2. In the present study, P3, CNV, and average activation on distracter-only trials were used to measure attentional investment. The goal was to investigate whether these electrophysiological measures mediated the relationship between self-reported affect and the AB. Results demonstrated that investment of attentional resources was not associated with self-reported affect, or AB magnitude. However, self-report measures of affect, personality and electrophysiological measures of investment did follow some predictions derived from the overinvestment hypothesis.

Social comparison and body image in non or infrequent exercisers and exercisers

Body image refers to an individual's internal representation ofhis/her outer self (Cash, 1994; Thompson, Heinberg, Altabe, & Tantleff-Dunn, 1999). It is a multidimensional construct which includes an individual's attitudes towards hislher own physical characteristics (Bane & McAuley, 1998; Cash, 1994; Cash, 2004; Davison & McCabe, 2005; Muth & Cash, 1997; Sabiston, Crocker, & Munroe-Chandler, 2005). Social comparison is the process of thinking about the self in relation to others in order to determine if one's opinions and abilities are adequate and to assess one's social status (Festinger, 1954; Wood, 1996). Research investigating the role of social comparisons on body image has provided some information on the types and nature of the comparisons that are made. The act of making social comparisons may have a negative impact on body image (van den Berg et ai., 2007). Although exercise may improve body image, the impact of social comparisons in exercise settings may be less positive, and there may be differences in the social comparison tendencies between non or infrequent exercisers and exercisers. The present study examined the nature of social comparisons that female collegeaged non or infrequent exercisers and exercisers made with respect to their bodies, and the relationship of these social comparisons to body image attitudes. Specifically, the frequency and direction of comparisons on specific tal-gets and body dimensions were examined in both non or infrequent exercisers and exercisers. Finally, the relationship between body-image attitudes and the frequency and direction with which body-related social comparisons were made for non or infrequent exercisers and exercisers were examined. One hundred and fifty-two participants completed the study (n = 70 non or ill infrequent exercisers; n = 82 exercisers). Participants completed measures of social physique anxiety (SPA), body dissatisfaction, body esteem, body image cognitions, leisure time physical activity, and social comparisons. Results suggested that both groups (non or infrequent exercisers and exercisers) generally made social comparisons and most frequently made comparisons with same-sex friends, and least frequently with same-sex parents. Also, both groups made more appearance-related comparisons than non-appearance-related comparisons. Further, both groups made more negative comparisons with almost all targets. However, non or infrequent exercisers generally made more negative comparisons on all body dimensions, while exercisers made negative comparisons only on weight and body shape dimensions. MANOV As were conducted to examine if any differences on social comparisons between the two groups existed. Results of the MANOVAs indicated that frequency of comparisons with targets, the frequency of comparisons on body dimensions, and direction of comparisons with targets did not differ based on exercise status. However, the direction of comparison of specific body dimensions revealed a significant (F (7, 144) = 3.26,p < .05; 1]2 = .132) difference based on exercise status. Follow-up ANOVAs showed significant differences on five variables: physical attractiveness (F (1, 150) = 6.33,p < .05; 1]2 = .041); fitness (F(l, 150) = 11.89,p < .05; 1]2 = .073); co-ordination (F(I, 150) = 5.61,p < .05; 1]2 = .036); strength (F(I, dO) = 12.83,p < .05; 1]2 = .079); muscle mass or tone (F(l, 150) = 17.34,p < .05; 1]2 = 1.04), with exercisers making more positive comparisons than non or infrequent exercisers. The results from the regression analyses for non or infrequent exercisers showed appearance orientation was a significant predictor of the frequency of social comparisons N (B = .429, SEB = .154, /3 = .312,p < .01). Also, trait body image measures accounted for significant variance in the direction of social comparisons (F(9, 57) = 13.43,p < .001, R2adj = .68). Specifically, SPA (B = -.583, SEB = .186, /3 = -.446,p < .01) and body esteem-weight concerns (B = .522, SEB = .207, /3 = .432,p < .01) were significant predictors of the direction of comparisons. For exercisers, regressions revealed that specific trait measures of body image significantly predicted the frequency of comparisons (F(9, 71) = 8.67,p < .001, R2adj = .463). Specifically, SPA (B = .508, SEB = .147, /3 = .497,p < .01) and appearance orientation (B = .457, SEB = .134, /3 = .335,p < .01) were significant predictors of the frequency of social comparisons. Lastly, for exercisers, the results for the regression of body image measures on the direction of social comparisons were also significant (F(9, 70) = 14.65,p < .001, R2adj = .609) with body dissatisfaction (B = .368, SEB = .143, /3 = .362,p < .05), appearan.ce orientation (B = .256, SEB = .123, /3 = .175,p < .05), and fitness orientation (B = .423, SEB = .194, /3 = .266,p < .05) significant predictors of the direction of social comparison. The results indicated that young women made frequent social comparisons regardless of exercise status. However, exercisers m,a de more positive comparisons on all the body dimensions than non or infrequent exercisers. Also, certain trait body image measures may be good predictors of one's body comp~son tendencies. However, the measures which predict comparison tendencies may be different for non or infrequent exercisers and exercisers. Future research should examine the effects of social comparisons in different populations (i.e., males, the obese, older adults, etc.). Implications for practice and research were discussed.

The effects of a general excercise program on task self-efficacy and social physique anxiety in older adults

Older adults represent the most sedentary segment of the adult population, and thus it is critical to investigate factors that influence exercise behaviour for this age group. The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of a general exercise program, incorporating cardiovascular, strength, flexibility, and balance components, on task selfefficacy and SPA in older adult men and women. Participants (n=114, Mage = 67 years) were recruited from the Niagara region and randomly assigned to a 12-week supervised exercise program or a wait-list control. Task self-efficacy and SPA measures were taken at baseline and program end. The present study found that task self-efficacy was a significant predictor of leisure time physical activity for older adults. In addition, change in task self-efficacy was a significant predictor of change in SPA. The findings of this study suggest that sources of task self-efficacy should be considered for exercise interventions targeting older adults.