Glacier mass balances of Stubacher Sonnblickkees, Hohe Tauern Range, Eastern Alps, Austria, 1958/1959 to 2012/2013

Stubacher Sonnblickkees (SSK) is located in the Hohe Tauern Range (Eastern Alps) in the south of Salzburg Province (Austria) in the region of Oberpinzgau in the upper Stubach Valley. The glacier is situated at the main Alpine crest and faces east, starting at elevations close to 3050 m and in the 1980s terminated at 2500 m a.s.l. It had an area of 1.7 km² at that time, compared with 1 km² in 2013. The glacier type can be classified as a slope glacier, i.e. the relief is covered by a relatively thin ice sheet and there is no regular glacier tongue. The rough subglacial topography makes for a complex shape in the surface topography, with various concave and convex patterns. The main reason for selecting this glacier for mass balance observations (as early as 1963) was to verify on a complex glacier how the mass balance methods and the conclusions - derived during the more or less pioneer phase of glaciological investigations in the 1950s and 1960s - could be applied to the SSK glacier. The decision was influenced by the fact that close to the SSK there was the Rudolfshütte, a hostel of the Austrian Alpine Club (OeAV), newly constructed in the 1950s to replace the old hut dating from 1874. The new Alpenhotel Rudolfshütte, which was run by the Slupetzky family from 1958 to 1970, was the base station for the long-term observation; the cable car to Rudolfshütte, operated by the Austrian Federal Railways (ÖBB), was a logistic advantage. Another factor for choosing SSK as a glaciological research site was the availability of discharge records of the catchment area from the Austrian Federal Railways who had turned the nearby lake Weißsee ('White Lake') - a former natural lake - into a reservoir for their hydroelectric power plants. In terms of regional climatic differences between the Central Alps in Tyrol and those of the Hohe Tauern, the latter experienced significantly higher precipitation , so one could expect new insights in the different response of the two glaciers SSK and Hintereisferner (Ötztal Alps) - where a mass balance series went back to 1952. In 1966 another mass balance series with an additional focus on runoff recordings was initiated at Vernagtfener, near Hintereisferner, by the Commission of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences in Munich. The usual and necessary link to climate and climate change was given by a newly founded weather station (by Heinz and Werner Slupetzky) at the Rudolfshütte in 1961, which ran until 1967. Along with an extension and enlargement to the so-called Alpine Center Rudolfshütte of the OeAV, a climate observatory (suggested by Heinz Slupetzky) has been operating without interruption since 1980 under the responsibility of ZAMG and the Hydrological Service of Salzburg, providing long-term met observations. The weather station is supported by the Berghotel Rudolfshütte (in 2004 the OeAV sold the hotel to a private owner) with accommodation and facilities. Direct yearly mass balance measurements were started in 1963, first for 3 years as part of a thesis project. In 1965 the project was incorporated into the Austrian glacier measurement sites within the International Hydrological Decade (IHD) 1965 - 1974 and was afterwards extended via the International Hydrological Program (IHP) 1975 - 1981. During both periods the main financial support came from the Hydrological Survey of Austria. After 1981 funds were provided by the Hydrological Service of the Federal Government of Salzburg. The research was conducted from 1965 onwards by Heinz Slupetzky from the (former) Department of Geography of the University of Salzburg. These activities received better recognition when the High Alpine Research Station of the University of Salzburg was founded in 1982 and brought in additional funding from the University. With recent changes concerning Rudolfshütte, however, it became unfeasible to keep the research station going. Fortunately, at least the weather station at Rudolfshütte is still operating. In the pioneer years of the mass balance recordings at SSK, the main goal was to understand the influence of the complicated topography on the ablation and accumulation processes. With frequent strong southerly winds (foehn) on the one hand, and precipitation coming in with storms from the north to northwest, the snow drift is an important factor on the undulating glacier surface. This results in less snow cover in convex zones and in more or a maximum accumulation in concave or flat areas. As a consequence of the accentuated topography, certain characteristic ablation and accumulation patterns can be observed during the summer season every year, which have been regularly observed for many decades . The process of snow depletion (Ausaperung) runs through a series of stages (described by the AAR) every year. The sequence of stages until the end of the ablation season depends on the weather conditions in a balance year. One needs a strong negative mass balance year at the beginning of glacier measurements to find out the regularities; 1965, the second year of observation resulted in a very positive mass balance with very little ablation but heavy accumulation. To date it is the year with the absolute maximum positive balance in the entire mass balance series since 1959, probably since 1950. The highly complex ablation patterns required a high number of ablation stakes at the beginning of the research and it took several years to develop a clearer idea of the necessary density of measurement points to ensure high accuracy. A great number of snow pits and probing profiles (and additional measurements at crevasses) were necessary to map the accumulation area/patterns. Mapping the snow depletion, especially at the end of the ablation season, which coincides with the equilibrium line, is one of the main basic data for drawing contour lines of mass balance and to calculate the total mass balance (on a regular-shaped valley glacier there might be an equilibrium line following a contour line of elevation separating the accumulation area and the ablation area, but not at SSK). - An example: in 1969/70, 54 ablation stakes and 22 snow pits were used on the 1.77 km² glacier surface. In the course of the study the consistency of the accumulation and ablation patterns could be used to reduce the number of measurement points. - At the SSK the stratigraphic system, i.e. the natural balance year, is used instead the usual hydrological year. From 1964 to 1981, the yearly mass balance was calculated by direct measurements. Based on these records of 17 years, a regression analysis between the specific net mass balance and the ratio of ablation area to total area (AAR) has been used since then. The basic requirement was mapping the maximum snow depletion at the end of each balance year. There was the advantage of Heinz Slupetzky's detailed local and long-term experience, which ensured homogeneity of the series on individual influences of the mass balance calculations. Verifications took place as often as possible by means of independent geodetic methods, i.e. monoplotting , aerial and terrestrial photogrammetry, more recently also the application of PHOTOMODELLER and laser scans. The semi-direct mass balance determinations used at SSK were tentatively compared with data from periods of mass/volume change, resulting in promising first results on the reliability of the method. In recent years re-analyses of the mass balance series have been conducted by the World Glacier Monitoring Service and will be done at SSK too. - The methods developed at SSK also add to another objective, much discussed in the 1960s within the community, namely to achieve time- and labour-saving methods to ensure continuation of long-term mass balance series. The regression relations were used to extrapolate the mass balance series back to 1959, the maximum depletion could be reconstructed by means of photographs for those years. R. Günther (1982) calculated the mass balance series of SSK back to 1950 by analysing the correlation between meteorological data and the mass balance; he found a high statistical relation between measured and determined mass balance figures for SSK. In spite of the complex glacier topography, interesting empirical experiences were gained from the mass balance data sets, giving a better understanding of the characteristics of the glacier type, mass balance and mass exchange. It turned out that there are distinct relations between the specific net balance, net accumulation (defined as Bc/S) and net ablation (Ba/S) to the AAR, resulting in characteristic so-called 'turnover curves'. The diagram of SSK represents the type of a glacier without a glacier tongue. Between 1964 and 1966, a basic method was developed, starting from the idea that instead of measuring years to cover the range between extreme positive and extreme negative yearly balances one could record the AAR/snow depletion/Ausaperung during one or two summers. The new method was applied on Cathedral Massif Glacier, a cirque glacier with the same area as the Stubacher Sonnblickkees, in British Columbia, Canada. during the summers of 1977 and 1978. It returned exactly the expected relations, e.g. mass turnover curves, as found on SSK. The SSK was mapped several times on a scale of 1:5000 to 1:10000. Length variations have been measured since 1960 within the OeAV glacier length measurement programme. Between 1965 and 1981, there was a mass gain of 10 million cubic metres. With a time lag of 10 years, this resulted in an advance until the mid-1980s. Since 1982 there has been a distinct mass loss of 35 million cubic metres by 2013. In recent years, the glacier has disintegrated faster, forced by the formation of a periglacial lake at the glacier terminus and also by the outcrops of rocks (typical for the slope glacier type), which have accelerated the meltdown. The formation of this lake is well documented. The glacier has retreated by some 600 m since 1981. - Since August 2002, a runoff gauge installed by the Hydrographical Service of Salzburg has recorded the discharge of the main part of SSK at the outlet of the new Unterer Eisboden See. The annual reports - submitted from 1982 on as a contractual obligation to the Hydrological Service of Salzburg - document the ongoing processes on the one hand, and emphasize the mass balance of SSK and outline the climatological reasons, mainly based on the met-data of the observatory Rudolfshütte, on the other. There is an additional focus on estimating the annual water balance in the catchment area of the lake. There are certain preconditions for the water balance equation in the area. Runoff is recorded by the ÖBB power stations, the mass balance of the now approx. 20% glaciated area (mainly the Sonnblickkees) is measured andthe change of the snow and firn patches/the water content is estimated as well as possible. (Nowadays laserscanning and ground radar are available to measure the snow pack). There is a net of three precipitation gauges plus the recordings at Rudolfshütte. The evaporation is of minor importance. The long-term annual mean runoff depth in the catchment area is around 3.000 mm/year. The precipitation gauges have measured deficits between 10% and 35%, on average probably 25% to 30%. That means that the real precipitation in the catchment area Weißsee (at elevations between 2,250 and 3,000 m) is in an order of 3,200 to 3,400 mm a year. The mass balance record of SSK was the first one established in the Hohe Tauern region (and now since the Hohe Tauern National Park was founded in 1983 in Salzburg) and is one of the longest measurement series worldwide. Great efforts are under way to continue the series, to safeguard against interruption and to guarantee a long-term monitoring of the mass balance and volume change of SSK (until the glacier is completely gone, which seems to be realistic in the near future as a result of the ongoing global warming). Heinz Slupetzky, March 2014

Dinoflagellates and pollen of the Brito-Arctic Igneous Province flora, ODP Hole 104-642E

Palynological studies of the intrabasaltic sediment layers in the lower volcanic series from ODP Leg 104 outer Voring Plateau Hole 642E Cores 102 through 109 indicated abundant pollen and rarer dinoflagellate cysts. The dinoflagellates belong to the Apectodinium hyperacanthum Zone and indicate an age equivalent to nannoplankton Zones NP9-lower NP10 around the Paleocene/Eocene boundary. The pollen and spore assemblage found here in 12 of the samples from the lower volcanic series is of well- preserved and distinctive specimens and contains unusual forms of pollen from the Taxodiaceae and the Hamamelidae. It has not been transported far from vegetation that was dominated by conifer forest with some ferns and deciduous arborescent angiosperms. Nearly identical assemblages are found elsewhere in the Brito-Arctic Igneous Province, in intrabasaltic sediments from eastern Greenland, the Faeroe Islands, the Isle of Mull, and Antrim (Northern Ireland), and above basalt at the Rockall Plateau. The assemblage is also present in sediments around the Paleocene/Eocene boundary in Spitsbergen. This pollen and spore flora is also associated with dinoflagellate cysts of the Apectodinium hyperacanthum Zone in the deposits from eastern Greenland, the Rockall Plateau, and Spitsbergen, suggesting that these are correlative. Assemblages of the same age from the North Sea, Denmark, and the London and Paris Basins are different. Paleobotanical evidence suggests a short survival of the intrabasaltic flora, and that all the deposits considered here are of about the same age. We propose that at around the Paleocene/Eocene boundary a distinct flora, named here as the Brito-Arctic Igneous Province (BIP) flora, occurred on the line of volcanicity stretching from Rockall to the Greenland Sea, and even to Spitsbergen. Geophysical evidence supports our view that the Rockall to East Greenland intrabasaltics are more or less contemporaneous, at about the Paleocene/Eocene boundary. However, the comparable pollen and spore assemblage in the Hebridean province, at Mull and Antrim, is from pyroclastics that may be a little older.

Niche differentiation among mat-forming, sulfide-oxidizing bacteria in chemosynthetic ecosystems of the Nile Deep Sea Fan (Eastern Mediterranean Sea)

Sulfidic muds of cold seeps on the Nile Deep Sea Fan are populated by different types of mat-forming sulfide-oxidizing bacteria. The predominant sulfide oxidizers of three different mats were identified by microscopic and phylogenetic analyses as (i) Arcobacter species producing cotton-ball-like sulfur precipitates, (ii) large filamentous sulfur bacteria including Beggiatoa species, or (iii) single, spherical cells resembling Thiomargarita species. High resolution in situ microprofiles revealed different geochemical settings selecting for different mat types. Arcobacter mats occurred where oxygen and sulfide overlapped at the bottom water interface. Filamentous sulfide oxidizers were associated with non-overlapping, steep gradients of oxygen and sulfide. A dense population of Thiomargarita was favored by temporarily changing supplies of oxygen and sulfide. These results indicate that the decisive factors in selecting for different mat-forming bacteria within one deep-sea province are spatial or temporal variations in energy supply. Furthermore, the occurrence of Arcobacter spp.-related 16S rRNA genes in the sediments below all three types of mats, as well as on top of brine lakes of the Nile Deep Sea Fan, indicates that this group of sulfide oxidizers can switch between different life modes depending on the geobiochemical habitat setting.

Is South Sulawesi a Center of Growth in Eastern Indonesia? : Japanese ODA Strategy Revisited

Japanese ODA, especially that undertaken by JICA, has targeted South Sulawesi Province as a core area of development in eastern Indonesia, with hope that the economic growth of South Sulawesi will bring about spillover effects in other regions. This paper tests the validity of the strategy using a framework of Vector Autoregressive model. The results show that South Sulawesi’s economy Granger causes other regions in eastern Indonesia, but not vice versa, implying that South Sulawesi drives the development of other regions in eastern Indonesia. Further analysis shows that the development of the agricultural sector in South Sulawesi potentially has the highest spillover effects than other sectors and that the magnitude of spillover effect from South Sulawesi on eastern Indonesia is higher than other economically important regions, such as Eastern Java and Kalimantan.

Kenya's 2007 election crisis

On 27 December 2007, the Republic of Kenya held its tenth general election since independence. The ballot-related proceedings went as planned up to and including the vote count, providing grounds for optimism for a largely peaceful transfer of power. However, after the official declaration by the Electoral Commission of Kenya late in the afternoon of 30 December that the presidential election had been won by the incumbent, Mwai Kibaki (from Central Province and a Kikuyu), Kenya entered into a period of deep crisis. How might we best understand this great turbulence, which was unprecedented in post-independence Kenya? Perhaps the answer lies in the sudden defeat of the opposition's presidential candidate, Raila Odinga from Nyanza Province and a Luo, who had been widely expected to win. With the post-election upheaval as the context, and looking at the situation from the standpoint of political history, this paper will offer an analysis of trends in Kenya's politics since 2002.

Lupinus mariae-josphi, a new lupin endemic of soils with active lime and high pH in South Eastern Spain, is nodulated by a new bacterial lineage within Bradyrhizobium genus

Lupinus mariae-josephi is a recently described species (Pascual, 2004) able to grow in soils with high pH and active lime content in the Valencia province (Spain). L. mariae-josephi endosymbionts are extremely slowgrowing bacteria with genetic and symbiotic characteristics that differentiate them from Bradyrhizobium strains nodulating Lupinus spp. native of the Iberian Peninsula and adapted to grow in acid soils. Cross-inoculation experiments revealed that all the endosymbiotic isolates from L. mariae-josephi tested are legume-host selective and are unable to nodulate species such as L. angustifolius, and L. luteus. In contrast, Bradyrhizobium strains from Lupinus spp. tested were able to nodulate L. mariae-josephi, although the nodules fixed nitrogen inefficiently. Phylogenetic analysis was performed with housekeeping genes (rrn, glnII, recA, atpD) and nodulation gene nodC. Housekeeping gene phylogeny revealed that L. mariae-josephi rhizobia form a strongly supported monophyletic group within Bradyrhizobium genus. This cluster also includes B. jicamae and certain strains of B. elkanii. Contrarily, isolates from other Lupinus spp. native of the Iberian Peninsula were grouped mainly within B. canariense and two B. japonicum lineages. Phylogenetic analysis of L. mariae-josephi isolates based on the nodC symbiotic gene defined a solid clade close to isolates from Algerian Retama spp. and to fast-growing rhizobia.

Native bradyrhizobial symbionts of Lupinus mariae-josephae, a unique endemism thriving in alkaline soils in Eastern Spain

Lupinus mariae-josephae (Lmj) es una especie de lupino endémica de una pequeña y específica área de Comunidad Valenciana (Este de España), donde prospera en suelos alcalinoscalcáreos, un hábitat singular para los altramuces, que crecen preferentemente en suelos ácidos o neutros. Esto hace de Lmj una especie de lupino única. Cuando se inició este trabajo, la extensión conocida de este endemismo abarcaba unos 700 kilómetros cuadrados, confinados en la provincia de Valencia. En esta área, Lmj prospera en pequeñas poblaciones aisladas que contienen un número reducido de plantas por lo que se la consideró una especie en peligro de extinción. Todos los esfuerzos, utilizando estrategias clásicas dirigidas a ampliar el área de crecimiento de Lmj y garantizar su conservación, han tenido un éxito limitado. El trabajo que se presenta está dirigido a mejorar el conocimiento de la ecología de Lmj, en particular la interacción simbiótica que establece con bacterias del suelo denominadas rizobios y se centra en la caracterización fenotípica, filogenética y genómica de esos rizobios. También se investiga la posible contribución de la simbiosis en mejorar la conservación de Lmj. Para este fin, se han estudiado diferentes aspectos que se describen a continuación. El primero objetivo se centró en aislar y estudiar de la diversidad genética de las bacterias endosimbióticas de Lmj. . Se realizó un análisis filogenético de genes esenciales que mostró que las cepas de Lmj pertenecen al género Bradyrhizobium y que presentan una gran diversidad con características fenotípicas y simbióticas diferentes de cepas de Bradyrhizobium que nodulan otras especies de lupinos nativos de España (cepas ISLU). Las cepas estudiadas se dividieron en dos grupos (Clado I y Clado II). El Clado I, incluye a las cepas Lmj, definiendo un nuevo linaje, filogenéticamente relacionado con otras especies de Bradyrhizobium, como B. jicamae y B. elkanii. El Clado II contiene cepas ISLU relacionadas con cepas de B. canariense y B. japonicum que establecen simbiosis con lupinos de suelos ácidos. Otro análisis filogenético basado en genes simbióticos, distribuyó las cepas de Lmj en sólo dos grupos diferentes. La singularidad y gran diversidad de estas cepas en una pequeña área geográfica, hacen de este, un atractivo sistema para el estudio de la evolución y adaptación de las bacterias simbióticas a su respectiva planta huésped. Adicionalmente, se estudio la presencia de bacterias capaces de nodular Lmj en suelos básicos de Chiapas, México. Sorprendentemente, estos suelos contienen bacterias capaces establecer interacciones simbióticas eficientes con Lmj en ensayos de invernadero. A continuación se investigó la taxonomía de los endosimbiontes de Lmj analizando la secuencia de cuatro genes esenciales (16S rRNA, recA, glnII y atpD) y el promedio de identidad de nucleótidos de genomas completos de algunas cepas representativas de la diversidad (ANIm). Se identificaron nuevas especies de Bradyrhizobium dentro del Clado I y se definió una de ellas: 'Bradyrhizobium valentinum' sp. nov (cepa tipo LmjM3T = CECT 8364T, LMG 2761T). También se abordó cómo conservar Lmj en su hábitat natural mediante inoculación con alguna de las cepas aisladas. Se demostró la ausencia de bacterias capaces de nodular Lmj en suelos rojos alcalinos o ‘‘terra rossa’’ de la Península Ibérica y Baleares. Dos cepas, altamente eficientes en cuanto a la fijación de nitrógeno, LmjC y LmjM3T, fueron seleccionadas para ser empleadas como inoculantes. Dos experimentos de campo llevados a cabo en años consecutivos en áreas con características edafoclimáticas similares a las que presentan las poblaciones de Lmj, lograron la reproducción exitosa de la planta. Se concluyó que un ciclo reproductivo exitoso de Lmj es absolutamente dependiente de la inoculación con sus simbiontes naturales y que la simbiosis debe ser considerada un factor esencial en estrategias de conservación de leguminosas en peligro. La obtención de varias secuencias genómicas de cepas aisladas de Lmj y de otras cepas de Bradyrhizobium reveló una alta similitud entre los genomas de las cepas del Clado I, y permitió la identificación de cinco posibles nuevas especies. Además, se estudiaron tres agrupaciones de genes relacionados con la simbiosis (nod, nif y fix) definiendo un nuevo linaje para las cepas de Lmj, diferente del symbiovar “genistearum” de B. canariense y B. japonicum. La baja diversidad encontrada en el análisis filogenético de los genes simbióticos contrasta con la gran diversidad asociada a genes esenciales. La presencia de plásmidos en cepas del género Bradyrhizobium ha sido descrita en muy pocas ocasiones, sin embargo el análisis de la secuencia genómica de la cepa ISLU101, aislada de Lupinus angustifolius, reveló la presencia de un origen de replicación extracromosómico homólogo al operón repABC, presente en el plásmido de Bradyrhizobium sp BTAi1. Gracias a esta secuencia se identificaron genes homólogos en 19 de 72 cepas ISLU. Filogenéticamente, las secuencias de repABC se agruparon en un grupo monofilético con las de pBTAi1 y separadas de los rizobios de crecimiento rápido. Finalmente, se identificaron sistemas de secreción de proteínas de tipo III (T3SS) en nueve genomas de cepas de Lmj. Los T3SS pueden inyectar proteínas efectoras al interior de células vegetales. Su presencia en rizobios se ha relacionado con la gama de hospedador que pueden nodular y puede tener un efecto beneficioso, neutro o perjudicial en la simbiosis. Los T3SS de las cepas de Lmj codifican para una proteína efectora similar a NopE, un efector dependiente de T3SS descrito en B. diazoefficiens USDA 110T. La proteína NopE de la cepa LmjC se ha caracterizado bioquímicamente. ABSTRACT Lupinus mariae-josephae (Lmj) is a lupine species endemic of a unique small area in Valencia region (Eastern Spain) where the lupine plants thrive in alkaline-limed soils, which preferentially grow in acid or neutral soils. This is the type of soils native lupines of Spain. When this work was initiated, the extension of the endemic area of Lmj was of about 700 squared kilometers confined to the Valencia province. In this area, Lmj thrives in small, isolated patches containing a reduced number of plants, and points to an endemism that can easily became endangered or extinct. Consequently, the Valencia Community authorities gave a ‘‘microreserve” status for conservation of the species. All efforts, using classical strategies directed to extend the area of Lmj growth and ensure its conservation have been so far unsuccessful. The work presented here is directed to improve our knowledge of Lmj ecology and it is centered in the characterization of the rhizobial symbiosis by phenotypic, phylogenetic and genomic analysis as well as in investigate the potential contribution of the symbiosis to improve its conservation. To this end, five different topics have been studied, and results are briefly described here. Extensive details can be followed en the attached, published articles. The first topic deals with the indigenous rhizobial symbionts of the Lmj endemism, and its genetic diversity was investigated. The Lmj root symbionts belong to the Bradyrhizobium genus, and phylogenetic analysis based on core genes identified a large diversity of Bradyrhizobium strains with phenotypic and symbiotic characteristics different from rhizobia nodulating other Lupinus spp. native of Spain. The strains were split in two clades. Clade II contained strains close to classical B. canariense and B. japonicum lineages that establish symbioses with lupines in acid soils of the Mediterranean area. Clade I included Lmj strains that define a new lineage, close to other Bradyrhizobium species as B. jicamae and B. elkanii. The phylogenetic analysis based on symbiotic genes identified only two distinct clusters. The singularity and large diversity of these strains in such a small geographical area makes this an attractive system for studying the evolution and adaptation of the rhizobial symbiont to the plant host. Additionally, the presence of bacteria able to nodulate Lmj in basic soils from Chiapas, Mexico was investigated. Surprisingly, these soils contain bacteria able to effectively nodulate and fix nitrogen with Lmj plants in greenhouse assays. In the second topic, the taxonomic status of the endosymbiotic bacteria of Lmj from Valencia endemism and Chiapas was investigated. Results from phylogenetic analysis of core genes and Average Nucleotide Identity (ANIm) using draft genomic sequences identified new Bradyrhizobium species within strains of Clade I of Lmj endosymbiotic bacteria. Only one of these potentially new species has been defined, meanwhile the others are under process of characterization. The name ‘Bradyrhizobium valentinum’ sp. nov. was proposed for the defined species (type strain LmjM3T= CECT 8364T, LMG 2761T). The third topic was directed to conservation of endangered Lmj in its natural habitat. The relevant conclusion of this experimentation is that the symbiosis should be considered as a relevant factor in the conservation strategies for endangered legumes. First, we showed absence of bacteria able to nodulate Lmj in all the inspected ‘‘terra rossa’’ or alkaline red soils of the Iberian Peninsula and Balearic Islands. Then, two efficient nitrogen fixing strains with Lmj plants, LmjC and LmjM3T, were selected as inoculum for seed coating. Two planting experiments were carried out in consecutive years under natural conditions in areas with edapho-climatic characteristics identical to those sustaining natural Lmj populations, and successful reproduction of the plant was achieved. The relevant conclusion from these assays was that the successful reproductive cycle was absolutely dependent on seedling inoculation with effective bradyrhizobia The forth topic deep into the analysis of the genomic of Lmj representative strains. To this end, draft genomic sequences of selected Lmj strains and type strains of Bradyrhizobium spp. were assembled. The comparison analysis of the draft genomic sequences of Lmj strains and related Bradyrhizobium species grouped in Clade I, revealed a high genomic homology among them, and allowed the definition of five potentially new species of Lmj nodulating bacteria. Also, based on the available draft genomic sequences, only three clusters of nod, fix and nif genes from Lmj strains were identified and showed to define a new symbiotic lineage, distant from that of B. canariense and B. japonicum bv. genistearum. The low diversity exhibited by the phylogenetic analysis of symbiotic genes contrast with the large diversity of strains as regards the housekeeping genes analyzed. Besides, the genomic analysis of a Lupinus angustifolius strain ISLU101, revealed the presence of an extrachromosomal replication origin homologous to repABC cluster from plasmid present in Bradyrhizobium spp BTAi1. This repABC cluster gene sequence allowed the identification of extrachromosomic replication origin in 19 out of 72 Bradyrhizobium strains from Lupinus spp., a highly significant result since the absence of plasmids in the Bradyrhizobium genus was traditionally assumed. The repABC gene sequences of these strains grouped them in a unique monophyletic group, related to B. sp. BTAi1 plasmid, but differentiated from the repABC gene cluster of plasmids in fast growing rhizobium strains. The last topic was focused on characterization of type III secreted effectors present in Lmj endosymbiotic bacteria. Type III secretion systems (T3SS) are specialized protein export machineries which can deliver effector proteins into plant cells. The presence of T3SS in rhizobia has frequently been related to the symbiotic nodulation host-range and may have a beneficial or detrimental effect on the symbiosis with legumes. In this context, the presence of T3SS in genomes of nine Lmj strains was investigated, and it was shown the presence of clusters encoding NopE type III-secreted protein similar to the NopE1 and NopE2 of B. diazoefficiens USDA 110T. The putative NopE protein of LmjC strain is at present being characterized regarding its structure and function.

Chloroplast DNA variation and the recent radiation of the giant senecios (Asteraceae) on the tall mountains of eastern Africa.

Chloroplast DNA restriction-site variation was surveyed among 40 accessions representing all 11 species of giant senecios (Dendrosenecio, Asteraceae) at all but one known location, plus three outgroup species. Remarkably little variation (only 9 variable sites out of roughly 1000 sites examined) was found among the 40 giant senecio accessions, yet as a group they differ significantly (at 18 sites) from Cineraria deltoidea, the closest known relative. This pattern indicates that the giant senecios underwent a recent dramatic radiation in eastern Africa and evolved from a relatively isolated lineage within the Senecioneae. Biogeographic interpretation of the molecular phylogeny suggests that the giant senecios originated high on Mt. Kilimanjaro, with subsequent dispersion to the Aberdares, Mt. Kenya, and the Cherangani Hills, followed by dispersion westward to the Ruwenzori Mountains, and then south to the Virunga Mountains, Mt. Kahuzi, and Mt. Muhi, but with dispersion back to Mt. Elgon. Geographic radiation was an important antecedent to the diversification in eastern Africa, which primarily involved repeated altitudinal radiation, both up and down the mountains, leading to morphological parallelism in both directions. In general, the plants on a given mountain are more closely related to each other than they are to plants on other mountains, and plants on nearby mountains are more closely related to each other than they are to plants on more distant mountains. The individual steps of the geographic radiation have occurred at various altitudes, some clearly the result of intermountain dispersal. The molecular evidence suggests that two species are extant ancestors to other species on the same or nearby mountains.

Central & Eastern Africa, 1635 (Raster Image)

This layer is a georeferenced raster image of the historic paper map entitled: Aethiopia superior vel interior, vulgo Abissinorum sive Presbiteri Ioannis imperium. It was published by Guiljelmum et Johannem Blaeu in 1635. Scale [ca. 1:12,600,000]. Covers Central and Eastern Africa. Map in Latin.The image inside the map neatline is georeferenced to the surface of the earth and fit to the Africa Sinusoidal projected coordinate system. All map collar and inset information is also available as part of the raster image, including any inset maps, profiles, statistical tables, directories, text, illustrations, index maps, legends, or other information associated with the principal map. This map shows features such as drainage, cities and other human settlements, territorial boundaries, shoreline features, and more. Relief shown pictorially. Includes notes, illustrations of animals, and ornamental cartouche. This layer is part of a selection of digitally scanned and georeferenced historic maps from the Harvard Map Collection. These maps typically portray both natural and manmade features. The selection represents a range of originators, ground condition dates, scales, and map purposes.

Central & Eastern Africa, 1655 (Raster Image)

This layer is a georeferenced raster image of the historic paper map entitled: Haute Ethiopie, ou sont L'Empire des Abissins, La Nubie, et le Zanguebar : subdivisés en leurs principales parties, tirés de Sanut de Mercator &c. par le Sr. Sanson d'Abbeville. It was published by P. Mariette in 1655. Covers Central and Eastern Africa. Scale [ca. 1:12,000,000]. Map in French.The image inside the map neatline is georeferenced to the surface of the earth and fit to the Africa Sinusoidal projected coordinate system. All map collar and inset information is also available as part of the raster image, including any inset maps, profiles, statistical tables, directories, text, illustrations, index maps, legends, or other information associated with the principal map. This map shows features such as drainage, cities and other human settlements, territorial boundaries, shoreline features, and more. Relief shown pictorially.This layer is part of a selection of digitally scanned and georeferenced historic maps from the Harvard Map Collection. These maps typically portray both natural and manmade features. The selection represents a range of originators, ground condition dates, scales, and map purposes.

Central & Eastern Africa, 1887 (Raster Image)

This layer is a georeferenced raster image of the historic paper map entitled: Central Africa : on a scale of 1:10,000,000, By Dr. F. Boas. It was published by Hart & Von Arx in 1887. Scale 1:10,000,000 The image inside the map neatline is georeferenced to the surface of the earth and fit to the Africa Sinusoidal projected coordinate system. All map collar and inset information is also available as part of the raster image, including any inset maps, profiles, statistical tables, directories, text, illustrations, index maps, legends, or other information associated with the principal map. This map shows features such as drainage, cities and other human settlements, shoreline features, and more. Relief shown by shading. This layer is part of a selection of digitally scanned and georeferenced historic maps from the Harvard Map Collection. These maps typically portray both natural and manmade features. The selection represents a range of originators, ground condition dates, scales, and map purposes.

Sherbrooke, Eastern Townships and Kennebec Railway, New England, 1874 (Raster Image)

This layer is a georeferenced raster image of the historic paper map entitled: Map of the Sherbrooke, Eastern Townships and Kennebec Railway : with connections, prepared by G.W. & C.B. Colton & Co. It was published in 1874. Scale [ca. 1:1,267,200]. Covers New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, and portions of New Jersey, Pennsylvania, New York, Maine, and the province of Quebec, Canada. The image inside the map neatline is georeferenced to the surface of the earth and fit to the USA Contiguous Albers Equal Area Conic projection (Meters). All map collar and inset information is also available as part of the raster image, including any inset maps, profiles, statistical tables, directories, text, illustrations, or other information associated with the principal map. This map shows features such as railroads, railroad connections and stations, drainage, state and county boundaries, and more. Includes inset: [Sherbrooke, Eastern Townships and Kennebec Railway in province of Québec]. Scale [ca. 1:921,600]. This layer is part of a selection of digitally scanned and georeferenced historic maps of New England from the Harvard Map Collection. These maps typically portray both natural and manmade features. The selection represents a range of regions, originators, ground condition dates, scales, and purposes.

Eastern Africa showing expedition route of Speke and Grant, 1863 (Raster Image)

This layer is a georeferenced raster image of the historic paper map entitled: Map of the route explored by Captns. Speke & Grant from Zanzibar to Egypt : showing the outfall of the Nile from the Victoria Nyanza (Lake) and the various Negro territories discovered by them. It was published by Edward Stanford in 1863. Scale [ca. 1:5,800,000]. Covers portions of north and eastern Africa including parts of Sudan, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Uganda, Kenya, Rwanda, Burundi, and Tanzania. The image inside the map neatline is georeferenced to the surface of the earth and projected to the 'World Mercator' projection. All map collar and inset information is also available as part of the raster image, including any inset maps, profiles, statistical tables, directories, text, illustrations, index maps, legends, or other information associated with the principal map. This map shows features such as drainage, expedition routes of John Speke and James Grant, cities and other human settlements, tribe and territorial boundaries, and more. Relief is shown by hachures. Includes location map and text. This layer is part of a selection of digitally scanned and georeferenced historic maps from the Harvard Map Collection and the Harvard University Library as part of the Open Collections Program at Harvard University project: Organizing Our World: Sponsored Exploration and Scientific Discovery in the Modern Age. Maps selected for the project correspond to various expeditions and represent a range of regions, originators, ground condition dates, scales, and purposes.

Southern, Central, & Eastern Africa, 1655 (Raster Image)

This layer is a georeferenced raster image of the historic paper map entitled: Basse Aethiopie, qui comprend les Royaume de Congo, coste, et pays des Cafres, empires du Monomatapa, Monoemugi : la coste deça le Cap Negre est tirée en partie de Samuel Blommaert ; en dela, avecq l'Isle de Madagascar, de Sanuto ; le dedans du pays, d'autres, par N. Sanson. I. Somer Pruthenus Sculp. It was published by Chez Pierre Mariette in 1655. Scale [ca. 1:11,250,000]. Covers portions of Southern, Central, and Eastern Africa. Map in French.The image inside the map neatline is georeferenced to the surface of the earth and fit to the Africa Sinusoidal projected coordinate system. All map collar and inset information is also available as part of the raster image, including any inset maps, profiles, statistical tables, directories, text, illustrations, index maps, legends, or other information associated with the principal map. This map shows features such as drainage, cities and other human settlements, territorial boundaries, shoreline features, and more. Relief shown pictorially.This layer is part of a selection of digitally scanned and georeferenced historic maps from the Harvard Map Collection. These maps typically portray both natural and manmade features. The selection represents a range of originators, ground condition dates, scales, and map purposes.

Southern, Central, & Eastern Africa, ca. 1730 (Raster Image)

This layer is a georeferenced raster image of the historic paper map entitled: Carte de l'Afrique meridionale : ou pays entre la ligne & le cap de Bonne Esperance et l'isle de Madagascar, par la veuve de Nicolas Visscher avec privilege. It was published by Chez Henry de Leth, Marchand de l'Estampes près de la Boursse ca. 1730. Scale [ca. 1:12,250,000]. Covers portions of Southern, Central, and Eastern Africa. Map in French and Dutch.The image inside the map neatline is georeferenced to the surface of the earth and fit to the Africa Sinusoidal projected coordinate system. All map collar and inset information is also available as part of the raster image, including any inset maps, profiles, statistical tables, directories, text, illustrations, index maps, legends, or other information associated with the principal map. This map shows features such as drainage, cities and other human settlements, territorial boundaries, shoreline features, and more. Relief shown pictorially. Includes notes and insets: [Cabo de Bon Esperanca], Elevation du port et Mont Table au Cap de Bonne Esperance and Plan du port et Mont Table au Cap de Bonne Esperance.This layer is part of a selection of digitally scanned and georeferenced historic maps from the Harvard Map Collection. These maps typically portray both natural and manmade features. The selection represents a range of originators, ground condition dates, scales, and map purposes.