Identificazione di fattori trascrizionali associati al differenziamento neurale in cellule di sarcoma di Ewing: ruolo di NF-kB

Il sarcoma di Ewing (ES) è un tumore maligno pediatrico dell’apparato scheletrico; è associato a una traslocazione specifica codificante la proteina di fusione EWS-FLI1 e all’alta espressione di CD99, una glicoproteina di membrana fisiologicamente coinvolta in diversi processi biologici. EWS-FLI1 e CD99, sono riportati avere ruoli divergenti nella modulazione della malignità e del differenziamento di ES. CD99 inoltre è riportato modulare il pathway di MAPK, il quale interagendo con molteplici fattori di trascrizione partecipa a processi di proliferazione e differenziamento. In questo studio abbiamo investigato in due linee cellulari di ES silenziate per CD99 (TC-71shCD99 e IOR/CARshCD99) l’attività basale di diversi fattori trascrizionali quali: NF-kBp65, AP1, Elk-1, E2F e CREB. L’unico fattore trascrizionale statisticamente significativo è risultato essere NF-kBp65 e abbiamo valutato il suo ruolo nel differenziamento neurale di cellule di ES e la relazione con EWS-FLI1 e CD99. L’attività trascrizionale di NF-kB è stata valutata attraverso gene reporter assay in linee cellulari di ES a diversa espressione di CD99, EWS-FLI1 e NF-kB stesso. Il differenziamento neurale è stato valutato come espressione di βIII-Tubulin in immunofluorescenza. Il silenziamento di CD99 induce una down-modulazione dell’attività trascrizionale di NF-kB, mentre il knockdown di EWS-FLI1 ne induce un’aumento. Inoltre, il silenziamento di EWS-FLI1 non è in grado di contrastare la riduzione dell’attività di NF-kB osservata dopo silenziamento di CD99, suggerendo un ruolo dominante del CD99 nel signaling di NF-kB. Cellule deprivate di CD99 ma non di EWS-FLI1, mostrano un fenotipo differenziato in senso neurale, fenotipo che viene perso quando le cellule sono indotte a sovraesprimere NF-kB. Inoltre, in cellule CD99 positive, il silenziamento di NF-kB induce un leggero differenziamento neurale. In conclusione, questi dati hanno evidenziato il ruolo di NF-kB nel differenziamento di cellule di ES e che potrebbe essere un potenziale target nel ridurre la progressione di questo tumore.

Untersuchungen zum Mechanismus der Zytotoxizität von alkylierenden Agenzien in malignen Melanomzellen

Maligne Melanome sind gegenüber Chemotherapeutika relativ resistent. Das methylierende Alkylanz Temozolomid sowie das chlorethylierende und DNA-Interstrand Crosslink (ICL) bildende Alkylanz Fotemustin kommen bei der Behandlung des malignen Melanoms als Mittel erster Wahl zum Einsatz. In der vorliegenden Arbeit konnte das erste Mal nachgewiesen werden, dass die zytotoxische Wirkung von Temozolomid und Fotemustin in Melanomzellen durch Apoptose vermittelt wird. Unter Verwendung klinisch relevanter Dosen der beiden Alkylantien konnte die Induktion von Apoptose durch vier unabhängige Methoden (Bestimmung der SubG1-Fraktion und der Apoptose- / Nekrose-Frequenz, Aktivierung der Effektorcaspasen-3 und -7 sowie Spaltung von PARP-1) nachgewiesen werden. Die Alkylierungen an der O6-Position des Guanins, welche durch beide Agenzien induziert werden, sind auch in Melanomzellen die wichtigsten Zytotoxizität-bewirkenden Läsionen in der DNA, und die O6-Methylguanin-DNA-Methyltransferase (MGMT) ist folglich ein herausragender Resistenzmarker. Eine der verwendeten Zelllinien (D05) exprimierte p53-Wildtypprotein. Diese Zelllinie war resistenter als alle anderen Zelllinien gegenüber Temozolomid und Fotemustin. Dies weist darauf hin, dass p53 nicht die Apoptoseinduktion in Melanomzellen verstärkt. Die Prozessierung des O6MeG erfolgt über die Mismatch-Reparatur (MMR) unter Generierung von DNA-Doppelstrangbrüchen (DSBs). Die Untersuchung der durch Temozolomid induzierten DSBs, nachgewiesen durch gammaH2AX-Induktion, korrelierte direkt mit der apoptotischen Antwort von Melanomzelllinien und DSBs können somit als eine entscheidende apoptoseauslösende Größe angesehen werden. Eine Resistenz gegenüber dem methylierenden Temozolomid in der Zelllinie MZ7 konnte auf einen Defekt in der MMR-Schadenserkennung auf der Ebene des MutSalpha-Komplexes zurückgeführt werden. Dieser Defekt hatte keinen Einfluss auf die Fotemustin-vermittelte Apoptoseinduktion. Neben MGMT konnte somit die MMR als Resistenzfaktor gegenüber methylierenden Agenzien in Melanomen identifiziert werden. Die Fotemustin-induzierte Apoptose wurde in Melanomzelllinien im Detail untersucht. Es konnte erstmals gezeigt werden, dass Fotemustin-bedingte ICLs in Zellen einen G2/M-Arrest im Behandlungszyklus induzieren. Wie anhand G1-arretierter Zellen nachgewiesen werden konnte, war das Durchlaufen der DNA-Replikation vor Erreichen des Arrests für die Induktion der Apoptose notwendig. Die Prozessierung von ICLs ist im Vergleich zu Methylierungen der DNA deutlich komplexer. Dies könnte erklären, warum in Melanomzellen die durch gammaH2AX-Induktion repräsentierten DSBs nicht mit der Sensitivität der einzelnen Zelllinien korreliert. Die Untersuchung unterschiedlich sensitiver Zelllinien zeigte ein vergleichbares Schadensniveau an ICLs und eine ebenso vergleichbare initiale Prozessierung derselben unter Generierung von DSBs. Die Prozessierung dieser sekundären Läsionen, welche anhand der Abnahme von gammaH2AX-Foci untersucht wurde, war hingegen in der sensitiveren Melanomzelllinie deutlich weniger effektiv. Es konnte weiterhin nachgewiesen werden, dass eine uneffektive Prozessierung der sekundären Läsionen einhergeht mit einer verstärkten und länger anhaltenden Aktivierung der in der DSB-Detektion beteiligten Kinase ATM und der Checkpoint Kinase 1. Es wäre daher denkbar, dass eine verstärkte Aktivität dieser Kinasen proapoptotische Signale vermittelt. Unterschiede in der Prozessierung der sekundären Läsionen könnten somit ein wichtiger Marker der ICL-induzierten Apoptose darstellen. Des weitern konnte nachgewiesen werden, dass nach Fotemustingabe die mitochondrial-vermittelte Apoptose einen effektiven Exekutionsweg in Melanomen darstellt. Während Cytochrom C-Freigabe, Bcl-2-Abnahme an den Mitochondrien, Bax-Rekrutierung und Caspase-9 Aktivität nachgewiesen werden konnten, wurden keine Hinweise auf eine Fas-Rezeptor-vermittelte Apoptose gefunden. Die Unfähigkeit, Rezeptor-vermittelte Apoptose zu unterlaufen, könnte die Bedeutungslosigkeit des p53-Gens in Melanomen begründen, da gerade dieser Weg in der Alkylantien-induzierten Apoptose in anderen Zellsystemen eine große Relevanz besitzt. Bei der Suche nach einem alternativen proapoptotischen Signalweg konnten Hinweise für die Beteiligung des Rb/E2F-1-Wegs, welcher über p73 agiert, in einer p53-mutierten Melanomzelllinie gefunden werden. Einen Einfluss der Proteine Survivin und XIAP als Resistenzfaktoren auf die Fotemustin-induzierte Apoptose wurde hingegen nicht nachgewiesen.

Limited redundancy in phosphorylation of retinoblastoma tumor suppressor protein by cyclin-dependent kinases in acute lymphoblastic leukemia

Cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) successively phosphorylate the retinoblastoma protein (RB) at the restriction point in G1 phase. Hyperphosphorylation results in functional inactivation of RB, activation of the E2F transcriptional program, and entry of cells into S phase. RB unphosphorylated at serine 608 has growth suppressive activity. Phosphorylation of serines 608/612 inhibits binding of E2F-1 to RB. In Nalm-6 acute lymphoblastic leukemia extracts, serine 608 is phosphorylated by CDK4/6 complexes but not by CDK2. We reasoned that phosphorylation of serines 608/612 by redundant CDKs could accelerate phospho group formation and determined which G1 CDK contributes to serine 612 phosphorylation. Here, we report that CDK4 complexes from Nalm-6 extracts phosphorylated in vitro the CDK2-preferred serine 612, which was inhibited by p16INK4a, and fascaplysin. In contrast, serine 780 and serine 795 were efficiently phosphorylated by CDK4 but not by CDK2. The data suggest that the redundancy in phosphorylation of RB by CDK2 and CDK4 in Nalm-6 extracts is limited. Serine 612 phosphorylation by CDK4 also occurred in extracts of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia cells but not in extracts of mobilized CD34+ hemopoietic progenitor cells. This phenomenon could contribute to the commitment of childhood acute lymphocytic leukemia cells to proliferate and explain their refractoriness to differentiation-inducing agents.

DAPK2 is a novel E2F1/KLF6 target gene involved in their proapoptotic function

Death-associated protein kinase 2 (DAPK2) belongs to a family of proapoptotic Ca(2+)/calmodulin-regulated serine/threonine kinases. We recently identified DAPK2 as an enhancing factor during granulocytic differentiation. To identify transcriptional DAPK2 regulators, we cloned 2.7 kb of the 5'-flanking region of the DAPK2 gene. We found that E2F1 and Krüppel-like factor 6 (KLF6) strongly activate the DAPK2 promoter. We mapped the E2F1 and KLF6 responsive elements to a GC-rich region 5' of exon 1 containing several binding sites for KLF6 and Sp1 but not for E2F. Moreover, we showed that transcriptional activation of DAPK2 by E2F1 and KLF6 is dependent on Sp1 using Sp1/KLF6-deficient insect cells, mithramycin A treatment to block Sp1-binding or Sp1 knockdown cells. Chromatin immunoprecipitation revealed recruitment of Sp1 and to lesser extent that of E2F1 and KLF6 to the DAPK2 promoter. Activation of E2F1 in osteosarcoma cells led to an increase of endogenous DAPK2 paralleled by cell death. Inhibition of DAPK2 expression resulted in significantly reduced cell death upon E2F1 activation. Similarly, KLF6 expression in H1299 cells increased DAPK2 levels accompanied by cell death that is markedly decreased upon DAPK2 knockdown. Moreover, E2F1 and KLF6 show cooperation in activating the DAPK2 promoter. In summary, our findings establish DAPK2 as a novel Sp1-dependent target gene for E2F1 and KLF6 in cell death response.

The tumor suppressor gene hypermethylated in cancer 1 is transcriptionally regulated by E2F1

The Hypermethylated in Cancer 1 (HIC1) gene encodes a zinc finger transcriptional repressor that cooperates with p53 to suppress cancer development. We and others recently showed that HIC1 is a transcriptional target of p53. To identify additional transcriptional regulators of HIC1, we screened a set of transcription factors for regulation of a human HIC1 promoter reporter. We found that E2F1 strongly activates the full-length HIC1 promoter reporter. Promoter deletions and mutations identified two E2F responsive elements in the HIC1 core promoter region. Moreover, in vivo binding of E2F1 to the HIC1 promoter was shown by chromatin immunoprecipitation assays in human TIG3 fibroblasts expressing tamoxifen-activated E2F1. In agreement, activation of E2F1 in TIG3-E2F1 cells markedly increased HIC1 expression. Interestingly, expression of E2F1 in the p53(-/-) hepatocellular carcinoma cell line Hep3B led to an increase of endogenous HIC1 mRNA, although bisulfite genomic sequencing of the HIC1 promoter revealed that the region bearing the two E2F1 binding sites is hypermethylated. In addition, endogenous E2F1 induced by etoposide treatment bound to the HIC1 promoter. Moreover, inhibition of E2F1 strongly reduced the expression of etoposide-induced HIC1. In conclusion, we identified HIC1 as novel E2F1 transcriptional target in DNA damage responses.

THE ROLE OF E2F1 IN THE RESPONSE TO DNA DOUBLE STRAND BREAKS

The importance of E2F transcription factors in the processes of proliferation and apoptosis are well established. E2F1, but not other E2F family members, is also phosphorylated and stabilized in response to various forms of DNA damage to regulate the expression of cell cycle and pro-apoptotic genes. E2F1 also relocalizes and forms foci at sites of DNA double-strand breaks but the function of E2F1 at sites of damage is still unknown. Here I reveal that E2F1 deficiency leads to increased spontaneous DNA break and impaired recovery following exposure to ionizing radiation. In response to DNA double-strand breaks, NBS1 phosphorylation and foci formation are defective in cells lacking E2F1, but NBS1 expression levels are unaffected. Moreover, it was observed that an association between NBS1 and E2F1 is increased in response to DNA damage, suggesting that E2F1 may promote NBS1 foci formation through a direct or indirect interaction at sites of DNA breaks. E2F1 deficient cells also display impaired foci formation of RPA and Rad51, which suggests a defect in DNA end resection and formation of single-stranded DNA at DNA double-strand breaks. I also found E2F1 status affects foci formation of the histone acetyltransferase GCN5 in response to DNA double-strand breaks. E2F1 is phosphorylated at serine 31 (serine 29 in mouse) by the ATM kinase as part of the DNA damage response. To investigate the importance of this event, our lab developed an E2F1 serine 29 mutant mouse model. I find that E2F1 serine 29 mutant cells show loss of E2F1 foci formation in response to DNA double-strand breaks. Furthermore, DNA repair and NBS1 foci formation are impaired in E2f1S29A/S29A cells. Taken together, my results indicate novel roles for E2F1 in the DNA damage response, which may directly promote DNA repair and genome maintenance.

The effect of v-{\it mos\/} expression on the regulation of the {\it fos\/} promoter in 490N3T cells

The v-mos oncogene acquired by Moloney murine sarcoma viruses by recombination with the c-mos proto-oncogene encodes a 37kD cytoplasmic serine/threonine protein kinase which can phosphorylate tubulin and vimentin, as well as the cyclin B component of the maturation promotion factor complex (MPF). Our earliest experiments asked whether the v-mos protein could activate the transcription of transin. Since the transcription of transin was known to be mediated by both fos-dependent and fos-independent pathways, it seemed possible that the induction of transin transcription by v-mos might be mediated by p55$\sp{\rm c-}\sp{fos}$. Surprisingly, when we examined the effect of v-mos on the fos promoter, we observed a significant inhibition of transcription in 49ON3T cells, a subclone of N1H3T3 mouse fibroblasts.^ In this thesis we show that in mouse 49ON3T cells, transcription from the fos promoter is up to 10-fold repressed in the presence of v-mos. Moreover, in this cell line several other transforming constructs (v-ras, v-src, neu) also cause repression of the fos promoter. Interestingly, nontransforming oncogenes (e.g. myc) do not repress fos transcription. The repressive effect was lost in v-mos mutants lacking in ATP-binding or kinase domain, arguing that the effect on fos transcription was mediated by v-mos transforming kinase activity. As mos is a cytoplasmic protein, it was assumed that transcriptional repression was mediated by conversion of a transcriptional regulator to a repressor by mos-induced phosphorylation. As a first approximation of the identity of this factor, we mapped the position of the mos effect on the fos promoter using reporter (CAT) constructs. We found that repression was mediated by regions $-$221 to $-$106 and $-$122 to $-$65 relative to the fos transcriptional start site, both of which regions regulate baseline fos transcription. There are direct repeats containing E2F transcriptional activator/repressor recognition motifs in these regions which bind similar nuclear proteins independently of v-mos presence or absence. Our data show that the contribution of the direct repeat to baseline fos transcription is mediated by these E2F sites with perhaps some contribution from the overlapping retinoblastoma control element (RCE). We have shown that there is a separate DNA protein interaction in the direct repeat which is more pronounced in the presence of v-mos. The recognition site for this protein, which we speculate mediates the mos-induced downregulation of fos transcription, overlaps but is distinct from the E2F and RCE binding sites. (Abstract shortened by UMI.) ^

Isolation, characterization and functional analysis of the {\it xnf7\/} gene from {\it Xenopus laevis\/}

A fundamental problem in developmental biology concerns the mechanisms involved in the establishment of the embryonic axis. We are studying Xenopus nuclear factor 7 (xnf7) which we believe to be involved in dorsal-ventral patterning in Xenopus laevis. Xnf7 is a maternal gene product that is retained in the cytoplasm during early embryogenesis until the mid-blastula transition (MBT) when it reenters the nuclei. It is a member of a novel zinc finger proteins, the B-box family, consisting mainly of transcription factors and protooncogenes.^ The xnf7 gene is reexpressed during embryogenesis at the gastrula-neurula stage of development, with its zygotic expression limited to the central nervous system (CNS). In this study we showed that there are two different cDNAs coding for xnf7, xnf7-O and xnf7-B. They differ by 39 amino acid changes scattered throughout the cDNA. The expression of both forms of xnf7 is limited primarily to the central nervous system (CNS) and dorsal axial structures during later stages of embryogenesis.^ In order to study the spatial and temporal regulation of the gene, we screened a Xenopus genomic library using part of xnf7 cDNA as a probe. A genomic clone corresponding to the xnf7-O type was isolated, its 5$\sp\prime$ putative regulatory region sequenced, and its transcriptional initiation site mapped. The putative promoter region contained binding sites for Sp1, E2F, USF, a Pu box and AP1. CAT/xnf7 fusion genes were constructed containing various 5$\sp\prime$ deleted regions of the xnf7 promoter linked to a CAT (Chloramphenicol Acetyl Transferase) reporter vector. These constructs were injected into Xenopus oocytes and embryos to study the regions of the xnf7 promoter responsible for basal, temporal and spatial regulation of the gene. The activity of the fusion genes was measured by the conversion of chloramphenicol to its acetylated forms, and the spatial distribution of the transcripts by whole mount in situ hybridization. We showed that the elements involved in basal regulation of xnf7 lie within 121 basepairs upstream of the transcriptional inititiation site. A DNase I footprint analysis performed using oocyte extract showed that a E2F and 2 Sp1 sites were protected. During development, the fusion genes were expressed following the MBT, in accordance with the timing of the endogenous xnf7 gene. Spatially, the expression of the fusion gene containing 421 basepairs of the promoter was localized to the dorsal region of the embryo in a pattern that was almost identical to that detected with the endogenous transcripts. Therefore, the elements involved in spatial and temporal regulation of the xnf7 gene during development were contained within 421 basepairs upstream of the transcriptional initiation site. Future work will further define the elements involved in the spatial and temporal regulation and the trans-factors that interact with them. ^

The role of deregulated E2F1 expression in brain tumors

Mutations disabling the retinoblastoma (Rb) pathway are among the most common in human cancers, including brain cancer. These mutations promote tumor development through deregulated control of the E2F family of transcription factors. E2F1 belongs to a class of E2F's identified as transcriptional activators and involved in the G1/S phase transition of the cell. However, E2F-1 presents with a paradox as it is considered to have membership in two gene classes, functioning as both an oncogene and a tumor suppressor. This unusual trait generates a degree of uncertainty on the role that E2F1 plays in the development or maintenance of any given tumor. Here we show that E2F1 functions as an oncogene in brain tumors through the generation of mice engineered to overexpress E2F1 specifically within glial cells and neuronal progenitors as directed by the GFAP promoter. Mice carrying the transgene develop with high penetrance a phenotype characterized by neurological deficits including paresia, ataxia, head tilt and seizures. MRI imagining of the tgE2F1 mice reveals a low incidence of mild hydrocephalus, and most notably, histological analysis demonstrates that 25% of tgE2F1 mice present with the spontaneous formation of malignant brain tumors. Overall these neoplasms show histological features from a wide range of aggressive brain cancers including medulloblastoma, choroid plexus carcinoma, primary neuroectodermic tumor and malignant gliomas. Isolation and characterization of astrocytes from the tgE2F1 animal reveals a highly proliferative population of cells with 55% ± 2.5 of the tgE2F1astrocytes, 35% ± 3.4 normal mouse astrocytes in S-phase and the acquired capacity to grow in anchorage independent conditions. Additionally tgE2F1 astrocytes show an aberrant phenotype with random chromosomal fusions and nearly all cells demonstrating polyploidy. Taken together, this model forces a comparison to human brain tumor formation. Mouse age as related to tumoral mimics the human scenario with juvenile tgE2F1 mice presenting embryonal tumors typically identified in children, and older tgE2F1 mice demonstrating gliomas. In this regard, this study suggests a global role for E2F1 in the formation and maintenance of multilineage brain tumors, irrefutably establishing E2F1 as an oncogene in the brain. ^

Abnormal expression of E2F1 and E2F4 results in hyperproliferation of the ependyma and lethal hydrocephalus

The proliferative role of E2F has been under investigation for several years. However, while it is known that E2F1 and E2F4 play a part in development and differentiation, research has not been centered on determining the exact functions these E2Fs play in brain development, given there high expression levels throughout embryogenesis. A GFAP-E2F1 mouse model directing human E2F1 transgene expression to glial cells, such as ependymal cells, was used in the present study in combination with an E2F4 mutant mouse model. Interestingly, 20% of tgE2F1; E2F4 null mice developed a phenotype consisting of domed head, hunched posture, seizures, tremors, hyperactivity or hypeactivity, dysnea, and low body weight. These mice died during the first three weeks of severe hydrocephalus. Similarly, tgE2F1; E2F4 heterozygous mice also develop severe hydrocephalus, although this occurs at 6 weeks at a 2% frequency. Pathological examination of the brains of those animals uncovered enlarged cerebral ventricles with marked thinning of the cerebral cortices, confirming the diagnosis of three-ventricle hydrocephalus, and the absence of tumors. Careful examination of the aqueduct shows an excess of proliferating cells that may cause a blockage of CSF. Of significance, 44% of ependymal cells in hydrocephalic tgE2F1;E2F4-/- mouse brains were positive for BrdU incorporation. Studies determining the molecular rationale for the hydrocephalic phenotype suggest proliferative ependymal cells may not be exclusively related to dysregulated cell cycle in conjuction with E2F activity. Due in part to the deficiency of E2F4 in this mouse model, we find that differentiation of these ependymal cells is not complete and instead undergoes maturation arrest. This suggestion is confirmed by the expression of genes found in neural stem cells or precursor cell populations, in the ependymal cell region of tgE2F1; E2F4-/-. Therefore, from this study, we conclude that dysregulated E2F1 expression in combination with deficient E2F4 expression results in an undifferentiated ependymal cell population that is hyperproliferative in the ventricular system causing an impediment of CSF circulation. It is further concluded that normal E2F1 and E2F4 expression in brain development is crucial for the proper formation and function of the ventricular system.^

Tp53-dependent repression of cell cycle target genes: Global and mechanistic analysis

Most studies of p53 function have focused on genes transactivated by p53. It is less widely appreciated that p53 can repress target genes to affect a particular cellular response. There is evidence that repression is important for p53-induced apoptosis and cell cycle arrest. It is less clear if repression is important for other p53 functions. A comprehensive knowledge of the genes repressed by p53 and the cellular processes they affect is currently lacking. We used an expression profiling strategy to identify p53-responsive genes following adenoviral p53 gene transfer (Ad-p53) in PC3 prostate cancer cells. A total of 111 genes represented on the Affymetrix U133A microarray were repressed more than two fold (p ≤ 0.05) by p53. An objective assessment of array data quality was carried out using RT-PCR of 20 randomly selected genes. We estimate a confirmation rate of >95.5% for the complete data set. Functional over-representation analysis was used to identify cellular processes potentially affected by p53-mediated repression. Cell cycle regulatory genes exhibited significant enrichment (p ≤ 5E-28) within the repressed targets. Several of these genes are repressed in a p53-dependent manner following DNA damage, but preceding cell cycle arrest. These findings identify novel p53-repressed targets and indicate that p53-induced cell cycle arrest is a function of not only the transactivation of cell cycle inhibitors (e.g., p21), but also the repression of targets that act at each phase of the cell cycle. The mechanism of repression of this set of p53 targets was investigated. Most of the repressed genes identified here do not harbor consensus p53 DNA binding sites but do contain binding sites for E2F transcription factors. We demonstrate a role for E2F/RB repressor complexes in our system. Importantly, p53 is found at the promoter of CDC25A. CDC25A protein is rapidly degraded in response to DNA damage. Our group has demonstrated for the first time that CDC25A is also repressed at the transcript level by p53. This work has important implications for understanding the DNA damage cell cycle checkpoint response and the link between E2F/RB complexes and p53 in the repression of target genes. ^

Using K5 Myc transgenic mice to delineate *Myc's apoptotic and tumorigenic pathways

The c-myc oncogene has the unusual ability to induce proliferation and apoptosis. Transgenic mice have been generated in which the expression of Myc is under the control of an epithelial-specific keratin 5 (K5) promoter. These mice have increased levels of proliferation and p53-dependent apoptosis, and are predisposed to developing spontaneous tumors in epithelial tissues. In this study, various knockout mice were bred to K5 Myc transgenic mice to identify factors involved in the aberrant apoptosis, hyperproliferation, and spontaneous tumorigenesis present in these mice. Consistent with in vitro studies, Myc-induced, p53-dependent apoptosis in transgenic epidermis was found to be partially dependent on p19ARF, a p53 regulator that inhibits mdm2. Additionally, the rate of tumorigenesis was increased when p19ARF was absent in Myc transgenic mice. Consistent with previous reports that some E2F family members may function as tumor suppressors, inactivation of either E2f1 or E2f2 was found to accelerate tumor development in the K5 Myc transgenic mice. Acceleration of tumorigenesis in the absence of E2F1 occurred despite the fact that apoptotic levels were increased in transgenic tissue and tumors null for E2f1 , whereas hyperproliferation was unaffected. In contrast, inactivation of E2f2 was found to increase hyperproliferation in the K5 Myc transgenic mice, while having no effect on apoptosis. The lack of E2f1 in the Myc transgenic mice increased the expression of several p53 transcription target genes, which may explain the increased apoptosis in these mice. In transgenic epidermis, p53 is phosphorylated at serine 18, a site of phosphorylation by ATM. Inactivation of ATM in K5 Myc transgenic mice impaired Myc-induced apoptosis, identifying ATM as having an important role in Myc-induced apoptosis. Moreover, the absence of ATM accelerates tumorigenesis in K5-expressing tissues. However, p53 accumulation and phosphorylation at serine 18 induced by Myc occurs independent of ATM. Therefore, another activity of ATM appears to be important for Myc-induced apoptosis. These findings show that acceleration of tumorigenesis in K5 Myc transgenic mice, as in the case of p53, p19ARF, E2F1, E2F2, and ATM absence, does not necessarily correlate with suppression of Myc-induced apoptosis, as seen only when p53, p19ARF or ATM was absent. ^

Microarray analysis of autoimmune diseases by machine learning procedures

—Microarray-based global gene expression profiling, with the use of sophisticated statistical algorithms is providing new insights into the pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases. We have applied a novel statistical technique for gene selection based on machine learning approaches to analyze microarray expression data gathered from patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and primary antiphospholipid syndrome (PAPS), two autoimmune diseases of unknown genetic origin that share many common features. The methodology included a combination of three data discretization policies, a consensus gene selection method, and a multivariate correlation measurement. A set of 150 genes was found to discriminate SLE and PAPS patients from healthy individuals. Statistical validations demonstrate the relevance of this gene set from an univariate and multivariate perspective. Moreover, functional characterization of these genes identified an interferon-regulated gene signature, consistent with previous reports. It also revealed the existence of other regulatory pathways, including those regulated by PTEN, TNF, and BCL-2, which are altered in SLE and PAPS. Remarkably, a significant number of these genes carry E2F binding motifs in their promoters, projecting a role for E2F in the regulation of autoimmunity.

Induction of ARF tumor suppressor gene expression and cell cycle arrest by transcription factor DMP1

Expression of the DMP1 transcription factor, a cyclin D-binding Myb-like protein, induces growth arrest in mouse embryo fibroblast strains but is devoid of antiproliferative activity in primary diploid fibroblasts that lack the ARF tumor suppressor gene. DMP1 binds to a single canonical recognition site in the ARF promoter to activate gene expression, and in turn, p19ARF synthesis causes p53-dependent cell cycle arrest. Unlike genes such as Myc, adenovirus E1A, and E2F-1, which, when overexpressed, activate the ARF-p53 pathway and trigger apoptosis, DMP1, like ARF itself, does not induce programmed cell death. Therefore, apart from its recently recognized role in protecting cells from potentially oncogenic signals, ARF can be induced in response to antiproliferative stimuli that do not obligatorily lead to apoptosis.

Hypo-phosphorylation of the retinoblastoma protein (pRb) by cyclin D:Cdk4/6 complexes results in active pRb

In cycling cells, the retinoblastoma protein (pRb) is un- and/or hypo-phosphorylated in early G1 and becomes hyper-phosphorylated in late G1. The role of hypo-phosphorylation and identity of the relevant kinase(s) remains unknown. We show here that hypo-phosphorylated pRb associates with E2F in vivo and is therefore active. Increasing the intracellular concentration of the Cdk4/6 specific inhibitor p15INK4b by transforming growth factor β treatment of keratinocytes results in G1 arrest and loss of hypo-phosphorylated pRb with an increase in unphosphorylated pRb. Conversely, p15INK4b-independent transforming growth factor β-mediated G1 arrest of hepatocellular carcinoma cells results in loss of Cdk2 kinase activity with continued Cdk6 kinase activity and pRb remains only hypo-phosphorylated. Introduction of the Cdk4/6 inhibitor p16INK4a protein into cells by fusion to a protein transduction domain also prevents pRb hypo-phosphorylation with an increase in unphosphorylated pRb. We conclude that cyclin D:Cdk4/6 complexes hypo-phosphorylate pRb in early G1 allowing continued E2F binding.