Efeitos citotóxicos do teniposide, um derivado semi-sintético das epipodofilotoxinas, sobre linhagens celulares de carcinoma renal humano

O câncer renal corresponde a aproximadamente 3% dos tumores malignos do adulto, sendo a terceira malignidade urológica mais comum. Os tratamentos sistêmicos disponíveis para pacientes portadores de carcinoma renal avançado são, via de regra, pouco eficazes e sem um impacto definido na sobrevida. Portanto, torna-se imperioso que novos agentes e/ou estratégias terapêuticas para esta enfermidade sejam desenvolvidas. O derivado das epipodolofilotoxinas, etoposide, tem sido utilizado com sucesso no tratamento de vários tipos de tumores sólidos e hematológicos. Este agente exerce a sua ação antitumoral através da inibição da enzima nuclear topoisomerase II. Estudos recentes demonstraram que o efeito citotóxico in vitro deste agente é bem mais pronunciado quando as linhagens tumorais são expostas à droga por um tempo mais prolongado. Isto vem sendo confirmado em estudos clínicos, nos quais foi documentado um aumento significativo no percentual de respostas tumorais objetivas em pacientes com câncer avançado tratados com etoposide em doses repetidas diárias de forma continuada, comparativamente a pacientes que receberam pulsos de doses altas da droga a intervalos mais longos. Infelizmente, estudos iniciais com etoposide não revelaram uma atividade antitumoral significativa em pacientes com câncer renal avançado. Por esta razão, os estudos preliminares explorando o potencial terapêutico de seu análogo teniposide nesta doença também não receberam a devida atenção na literatura. Entretanto, este análogo possui potenciais vantagens terapêuticas em relação ao etoposide, uma vez que apresenta um tempo de retenção intracelular mais prolongado em linhagens de tumores sólidos in vitro. Estas observações nos estimularam a reconsiderar o estudo do potencial citotóxico do teniposide em modelos experimentais de câncer renal avançado. Nesta dissertação, foram estudados vários protocolos de administração de teniposide em linhagens de câncer renal humano, uma vez que esta neoplasia carece de drogas ativas disponíveis no armamentário terapêutico. Foram utilizadas as linhagens celulares RXF-393, A-498 e TK-10, as quais foram incubadas com teniposide em concentrações pré-determinadas e tempos de incubação variáveis. Além disto, foram feitos experimentos em que protocolos de administração de teniposide como agente único foram comparados a protocolos em que o mesmo foi combinado com agentes que bloqueiam a ação da glicoproteína P, responsável pelo efluxo ativo da droga do interior da célula tumoral. Além disso, foram também estudados protocolos incluindo a associação de teniposide com agentes que interferem com a síntese do DNA. Para os estudos de avaliação de citotoxicidade dos agentes quimioterápicos, os mesmos foram pré-incubados por 24 h na ausência ou presença do inibidor da DNA polimerase α afidicolina glicinada (0,2 µM) ou do inibidor da ribonucleotídeo redutase hidroxiuréia (200 µM) e após incubados por diferentes tempos de exposição com diluições seriadas de teniposide. Os efeitos citotóxicos foram avaliados através do método colorimétrico com sulforodamina B (SRB). Os protocolos de exposição prolongada das células ao teniposide mostraram um aumento significativo na sua citotoxicidade nas linhagens RXF-393, A-498 e TK-10, sugerindo que a citotoxicidade do teniposide é dependente de tempo de administração. Neste sentido, uma maior taxa de dano no DNA foi observada nas células expostas ao teniposide por tempos de administração mais prolongados. Curiosamente, os diferentes tempos de exposição ao teniposide não influenciaram de forma clara na formação de complexos DNA-topoisomerase II, nem nas medidas da atividade desta enzima. O uso concomitante de agentes moduladores da glicoproteína P como o verapamil, a ciclosporina A e o tamoxifeno não produziu potencialização do efeito antiproliferativo do teniposide. Por sua vez, os tratamentos com agentes que interferem na síntese de DNA, como a afidicolina glicinada ou a hidroxiuréia, potencializaram a citotoxicidade do teniposide em todas as linhagens estudadas, seguindo as características intrínsecas de cada linhagem. Em conclusão, os resultados apresentados nesta dissertação sugerem que o teniposide apresenta um maior efeito citotóxico em protocolos de administração prolongada em combinação com agentes inibidores da síntese de DNA. Frente a estes resultados iniciais, o teniposide será testado nos protocolos de administração acima mencionados em um painel contendo um maior número de linhagens tumorais in vitro. Uma vez confirmadas as observações acima descritas, serão iniciados estudos em modelos tumorais in vivo. Estes estudos servirão de base nas decisões quanto à reavaliação clínica do teniposide em ensaios de fase I em pacientes com neoplasias avançadas refratárias.

A importância da seqüência de administração do irinotecan e 5-fluorouracil na inibição da proliferação do carcinoma de cólon humano in vitro

O câncer colorretal é um dos tumores humanos mais freqüentes e a terceira causa de morte relacionada ao câncer no mundo. Apesar de importantes progressos terapêuticos, os resultados na doença avançada ainda são muito modestos. Isto deve-se ao fato de que a droga mais utilizada nesta neoplasia, o antimetabólito 5-fluorouracil (5-FU), foi desenvolvido a mais de 40 anos produzindo taxas de respostas de somente 10-15%. Recentemente, o inibidor da topoisomerase I irinotecan (CPT-11) demonstrou, em carcinoma de cólon avançado, respostas comparáveis tanto em pacientes não tratados quanto naqueles que tiveram recaída após terapia com 5-FU. Estes resultados justificam a avaliação da combinação 5-FU/CPT-11 nesta doença. Apesar das respostas dos estudos clínicos serem promissoras, a melhor seqüência de administração destes agentes ainda não foi determinada. Neste estudo, avaliamos a combinação CPT-11/5-FU quanto ao aumento da inibição do crescimento celular quando comparada com os agentes sozinhos nas linhagens celulares de carcinoma de cólon humano SW620, HT-29 e SNU-C4. Para isto, as células foram expostas às drogas sozinhas ou a várias combinações e seqüências de dose baixa e fixa (IC20) de um dos agentes na presença de dose alta e seriada do outro. As células foram avaliadas imediatamente após os tratamentos e/ou cultivadas por mais 2 dias em meio de cultura sem drogas através de coloração com sulforodamina B. As interações entre CPT-11 e 5-FU foram avaliadas por um programa de computador que permite calcular os índices de combinação (CIs) das drogas indicando sinergismo, adição, ou antagonismo (CI < 1, = 1, ou > 1, respectivamente). As respostas celulares foram relacionadas com as atividades das enzimas timidilato sintase, topoisomerase I e carboxil esterase, que foram determinadas através de ensaio que mede os sítios de ligação e atividade catalítica da enzima, ensaio de decatenação do DNA e método espectrofotométrico, respectivamente. Estando a toxicidade no DNA envolvida no mecanismo de ação das duas drogas, também relacionamos as respostas celulares com a introdução de danos ao DNA por método fluorescente. Para melhor entendermos as interações entre as drogas, examinamos os efeitos da exposição à IC20, IC50 e/ou IC80 do CPT-11 ou 5-FU por 2 h ou 24 h em alvos celulares possivelmente relacionados com a citotoxicidade destes agentes. Estes incluem: capacidade de reparo por excisão do 10 DNA, distribuição das células nas fases do ciclo celular, integridade da membrana plasmática e formação de complexos DNA-topoisomerase I. Para isto, utilizamos método de incorporação de [3H-metil]timidina, citometria de fluxo, liberação de lactato desidrogenase (LDH) no meio de cultura e ensaio de precipitação com SDS, respectivamente. Os estudos de inibição do crescimento celular revelaram valores de IC50 do 5-FU nas linhagens SW620, HT-29 e SNU-C4 de aproximadamente 15, 8 e 2 µM, respectivamente, e do CPT-11 próximos a 2, 2 e 4 µM, respectivamente. As diferentes sensibilidades ao 5-FU nas três linhagens foram determinadas principalmente pela diferença na afinidade ao substrato. As respostas comparáveis obtidas pela exposição ao CPT-11 podem ser explicadas pelo equilíbrio entre as diferentes atividades das enzimas topoisomerase I e carboxil esterase, entre as linhagens. O programa de análise da combinação das drogas mostrou adição ou sinergismo após exposição a IC20 do CPT-11 seguido do 5-FU, nas três linhagens celulares. Por outro lado, o pré-tratamento com IC20 do 5-FU antagonizou a inibição do crescimento mediada pelo CPT-11. Nenhum dos tratamentos simultâneos determinou um aumento na inibição do crescimento nas linhagens SW620 e HT-29; mas mostraram adição ou antagonismo na linhagem SNU-C4. Observamos um significativo acréscimo na introdução de danos ao DNA nas linhagens celulares SW620 e HT-29 somente quando a IC20 do CPT-11 precedeu a IC50 do 5-FU. Já na linhagem SNU-C4, não somente este tratamento, mas também a utilização simultânea dos agentes introduziu mais dano ao DNA. Os tratamentos por 2 h ou 24 h com IC20, IC50, e/ou IC80 do 5-FU ou CPT-11 não causaram mudanças significativas na distribuição das células nas fases do ciclo celular, concentração de LDH no meio de cultura, ou formação de complexos DNA-topoisomerse I. Indicando que alterações nestes processos não estão envolvidas com os efeitos modulatórios dos pré-tratamentos na citotoxicidade das drogas. Entretanto, a incorporação de [3H-metil]timidina no DNA de células tratadas com CPT-11, aumentou em função da dose e tempo de exposição à droga. Este resultado sugere que o dano ao DNA introduzido pelo CPT-11 depende da dose e tempo de exposição podendo ser reparado por mecanismos de excisão. Somente foi observada significativa incorporação de [3H-metil]timidina em células tratadas com IC20 do 5-FU por 2 h, sugerindo que o reparo por excisão só ocorre após exposição por curto período e à doses baixas deste agente. Juntos, os resultados deste estudo mostraram que tanto os efeitos anti-proliferativos quanto a introdução de danos ao DNA pela combinação CPT-11/5-FU em dose baixa e fixa de um agente junto com dose alta do outro, nas linhagens celulares de carcinoma de cólon humano SW620, HT-29 e SNU-C4, dependem da seqüência de administração das drogas. Estes achados podem ter sido determinados pelos diferentes efeitos do tratamento com uma dose baixa dos agentes nos mecanismos de reparo por excisão do DNA.

Doença arterial coronariana: Um novo paradigma na AIDS

The HIV-infected individuals have been identified as a peculiar group whose propensity to the development of abnormalities in lipids metabolism supports the hypothesis that AIDS itself can be considered as an independent risk factor for the occlusive diseases development. The AIDS progression, as well as the therapy against HIV has been capable to show an array of metabolic disturbances that HIV-infected patients are prone to. These metabolic alterations affect the fate of plasmatic lipids and homocysteine as a result of three factor mainly: (i) the viral infection per se which triggers the development of hypertriglyceridemia and hipocholesterolemia; (ii) multiple vitamins and micronutrients deficiencies, that favors an onset of hyperhomocysteinemia; (iii) the state-of-the-art therapy for HIV infection, which is accompanied to idiosyncratic effects encompassing the lipid metabolism. In this context, a variety of risk factors to atherosclerosis can be identified in the HIV-infected individual. Of note, it must be considered that once life expectancy of these patients has been expanded due to the effective therapy, on the other hand they can accelerate atherosclerotic disease or its pathological appearance in the same extent.

Bezafibrate for the treatment of hypertriglyceridemia in HIV1-infected patients on highly active antiretroviral therapy

The use of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) in HIV-infected patients has been associated with the development of risk factors for cardiovascular diseases (CD) including dyslipidemia and insulin resistance, hypertriglyceridemia being the most frequent metabolic disturbance in these patients. Fibrates are indicated when hypertriglyceridemia is accentuated and persists for over six months. We evaluated the efficacy and safety of bezafibrate for the treatment of hypertriglyceridemia in HIV-infected individuals on HAART. All patients received 400mg/day of bezafibrate and were evaluated three times: Mo (pre-treatment), M1 (one month after treatment), and M2 (six months after treatment). Fifteen adult individuals, eight males and seven females with mean age = 41.2 ± 7.97 years and triglyceride serum levels ≥400mg/dL were included in the study. Smoking, alcohol ingestion and sedentarism rates were 50%, 6.66% and 60%, respectively. Family history of CD, hypertension and diabetes mellitus was reported in 33.3%, 40% and 46.7% of the cases, respectively, while dyslipidemia was reported by only 13.3%. More than half of the patients were using a protease inhibitor plus a nucleotide analog transcriptase inhibitor. Eutrophy and tendency toward overweight were observed at all three study time points. There were significant reductions in triglyceride serum levels from Mo to M1 and from Mo to M2. No significant changes were observed in the serum levels of creatine phosphokinase, hepatic enzymes, CD4 +, CD8 + and viral load. Therefore, bezafibrate seems to be safe and effective for the reduction of hypertriglyceridemia in HIV-infected patients on HAART. © 2006 by The Brazilian Journal of Infectious Diseases and Contexto Publishing. All rights reserved.

Evolução de pacientes com AIDS pós cART: Evolução clínica e laboratorial de pacientes com AIDS após 48 semanas de tratamento antirretroviral

Combination Antiretroviral Therapy (cART) aims to inhibit viral replication, delay immunodeficiency progression and improve survival in AIDS patients. The objective of this study was to compare two different schemes of cART, based on plasma viral load (VL) and CD4+ T lymphocyte count, during 48 weeks of treatment. For this purpose, 472 medical charts of a Specialized Outpatient Service were reviewed from 1998 to 2005. Out of these, 58 AIDS patients who had received a triple drug scheme as the initial treatment were included in the study and two groups were formed: Group 1 (G1): 47 individuals treated with two nucleoside reverse-transcriptase inhibitors (NRTI) and one non-nucleoside reverse-transcriptase inhibitor; Group 2 (G2): 11 patients treated with two NRTI and one protease inhibitor. In G1 and G2, 53.2% and 81.8% respectively were patients with an AIDS-defining disease. The T CD4+ lymphocyte count increased progressively up until the 24th week of treatment in all patients, while VL became undetectable in 68.1% of G1 and in 63.6% of G2. The study concluded that the evolutions of laboratory tests were similar in the two treatment groups and that both presented a favorable clinical evolution.

A BAYESIAN APPROACH TO DOSE-RESPONSE ASSESSMENT AND DRUG-DRUG INTERACTION ANALYSIS: APPLICATION TO IN VITRO STUDIES

The considerable search for synergistic agents in cancer research is motivated by the therapeutic benefits achieved by combining anti-cancer agents. Synergistic agents make it possible to reduce dosage while maintaining or enhancing a desired effect. Other favorable outcomes of synergistic agents include reduction in toxicity and minimizing or delaying drug resistance. Dose-response assessment and drug-drug interaction analysis play an important part in the drug discovery process, however analysis are often poorly done. This dissertation is an effort to notably improve dose-response assessment and drug-drug interaction analysis. The most commonly used method in published analysis is the Median-Effect Principle/Combination Index method (Chou and Talalay, 1984). The Median-Effect Principle/Combination Index method leads to inefficiency by ignoring important sources of variation inherent in dose-response data and discarding data points that do not fit the Median-Effect Principle. Previous work has shown that the conventional method yields a high rate of false positives (Boik, Boik, Newman, 2008; Hennessey, Rosner, Bast, Chen, 2010) and, in some cases, low power to detect synergy. There is a great need for improving the current methodology. We developed a Bayesian framework for dose-response modeling and drug-drug interaction analysis. First, we developed a hierarchical meta-regression dose-response model that accounts for various sources of variation and uncertainty and allows one to incorporate knowledge from prior studies into the current analysis, thus offering a more efficient and reliable inference. Second, in the case that parametric dose-response models do not fit the data, we developed a practical and flexible nonparametric regression method for meta-analysis of independently repeated dose-response experiments. Third, and lastly, we developed a method, based on Loewe additivity that allows one to quantitatively assess interaction between two agents combined at a fixed dose ratio. The proposed method makes a comprehensive and honest account of uncertainty within drug interaction assessment. Extensive simulation studies show that the novel methodology improves the screening process of effective/synergistic agents and reduces the incidence of type I error. We consider an ovarian cancer cell line study that investigates the combined effect of DNA methylation inhibitors and histone deacetylation inhibitors in human ovarian cancer cell lines. The hypothesis is that the combination of DNA methylation inhibitors and histone deacetylation inhibitors will enhance antiproliferative activity in human ovarian cancer cell lines compared to treatment with each inhibitor alone. By applying the proposed Bayesian methodology, in vitro synergy was declared for DNA methylation inhibitor, 5-AZA-2'-deoxycytidine combined with one histone deacetylation inhibitor, suberoylanilide hydroxamic acid or trichostatin A in the cell lines HEY and SKOV3. This suggests potential new epigenetic therapies in cell growth inhibition of ovarian cancer cells.

HLA-DPB1 and DPB2 are genetic loci for systemic sclerosis: a genome-wide association study in Koreans with replication in North Americans.

OBJECTIVE: To identify systemic sclerosis (SSc) susceptibility loci via a genome-wide association study. METHODS: A genome-wide association study was performed in 137 patients with SSc and 564 controls from Korea using the Affymetrix Human SNP Array 5.0. After fine-mapping studies, the results were replicated in 1,107 SSc patients and 2,747 controls from a US Caucasian population. RESULTS: The single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) (rs3128930, rs7763822, rs7764491, rs3117230, and rs3128965) of HLA-DPB1 and DPB2 on chromosome 6 formed a distinctive peak with log P values for association with SSc susceptibility (P=8.16x10(-13)). Subtyping analysis of HLA-DPB1 showed that DPB1*1301 (P=7.61x10(-8)) and DPB1*0901 (P=2.55x10(-5)) were the subtypes most susceptible to SSc in Korean subjects. In US Caucasians, 2 pairs of SNPs, rs7763822/rs7764491 and rs3117230/rs3128965, showed strong association with SSc patients who had either circulating anti-DNA topoisomerase I (P=7.58x10(-17)/4.84x10(-16)) or anticentromere autoantibodies (P=1.12x10(-3)/3.2x10(-5)), respectively. CONCLUSION: The results of our genome-wide association study in Korean subjects indicate that the region of HLA-DPB1 and DPB2 contains the loci most susceptible to SSc in a Korean population. The confirmatory studies in US Caucasians indicate that specific SNPs of HLA-DPB1 and/or DPB2 are strongly associated with US Caucasian patients with SSc who are positive for anti-DNA topoisomerase I or anticentromere autoantibodies.

Functional analysis of BLAP75, a BLM-associated protein

Bloom syndrome (BS) is an autosomal recessive disorder characterized by dwarfism, immunodeficiency, impaired fertility, and most importantly, early development of a broad range of cancers. The hallmark of BS cells is hyper-recombination, characterized by a drastically elevated frequency of sister chromatid exchange (SCE). BLM, the gene mutated in BS, encodes a DNA helicase of the RecQ protein family. BLM is thought to participate in several DNA transactions and to interact with many proteins involved in DNA replication, recombination, and repair. However, the precise function of BLM and the BLM-dependent anti-tumor mechanism remain obscure. ^ A novel protein, BLAP75 (BLM-associated polypeptide, 75KD), was identified to form an evolutionarily conserved complex with BLM and DNA topoisomerase IIIα (Topo IIIα). Our work demonstrates that loss of BLAP75 destabilized BLM and Topo IIIα proteins. BLAP75 colocalized with BLM in subnuclear foci in response to DNA damage and the recruitment of BLM to these foci was BLAP75-dependent. Moreover, depletion of BLAP75 by siRNA resulted in an elevated SCE rate similar to cells depleted of BLM by siRNA. In addition, RNAi-mediated silencing of BLAP75 greatly diminished cell viability. This cellular deficiency was rescued by expression of wild type BLAP75 but not BLAP75 with mutated conserved domain III, which abrogated the interaction between BLAP75, BLM and Topo IIIα, suggesting that the integrity of BLM-Topo IIIα-BLAP75 complex might be critical for cell survival. Finally, I found that BLAP75 was phosphorylated during mitosis and upon various DNA-damaging agents, implying that BLAP75 might also function in mitosis and DNA damage response. ^ Taken together, this study has defined BLAP75 as an integral component of the BLM complex to maintain genome stability. Our findings provide insights into the molecular mechanisms of the BLM helicase pathway and tumorigenesis process associated with these mechanisms. ^

MLL is fused to CBP, a histone acetyltransferase, in therapy-related acute myeloid leukemia with a t(11;16)(q23;p13.3)

The recurring translocation t(11;16)(q23;p13.3) has been documented only in cases of acute leukemia or myelodysplasia secondary to therapy with drugs targeting DNA topoisomerase II. We show that the MLL gene is fused to the gene that codes for CBP (CREB-binding protein), the protein that binds specifically to the DNA-binding protein CREB (cAMP response element-binding protein) in this translocation. MLL is fused in-frame to a different exon of CBP in two patients producing chimeric proteins containing the AT-hooks, methyltransferase homology domain, and transcriptional repression domain of MLL fused to the CREB binding domain or to the bromodomain of CBP. Both fusion products retain the histone acetyltransferase domain of CBP and may lead to leukemia by promoting histone acetylation of genomic regions targeted by the MLL AT-hooks, leading to transcriptional deregulation via aberrant chromatin organization. CBP is the first partner gene of MLL containing well defined structural and functional motifs that provide unique insights into the potential mechanisms by which these translocations contribute to leukemogenesis.

Dynamics of Centromeres during Metaphase–Anaphase Transition in Fission Yeast: Dis1 Is Implicated in Force Balance in Metaphase Bipolar Spindle

In higher eukaryotic cells, the spindle forms along with chromosome condensation in mitotic prophase. In metaphase, chromosomes are aligned on the spindle with sister kinetochores facing toward the opposite poles. In anaphase A, sister chromatids separate from each other without spindle extension, whereas spindle elongation takes place during anaphase B. We have critically examined whether such mitotic stages also occur in a lower eukaryote, Schizosaccharomyces pombe. Using the green fluorescent protein tagging technique, early mitotic to late anaphase events were observed in living fission yeast cells. S. pombe has three phases in spindle dynamics, spindle formation (phase 1), constant spindle length (phase 2), and spindle extension (phase 3). Sister centromere separation (anaphase A) rapidly occurred at the end of phase 2. The centromere showed dynamic movements throughout phase 2 as it moved back and forth and was transiently split in two before its separation, suggesting that the centromere was positioned in a bioriented manner toward the poles at metaphase. Microtubule-associating Dis1 was required for the occurrence of constant spindle length and centromere movement in phase 2. Normal transition from phase 2 to 3 needed DNA topoisomerase II and Cut1 but not Cut14. The duration of each phase was highly dependent on temperature.

MSF (MLL septin-like fusion), a fusion partner gene of MLL, in a therapy-related acute myeloid leukemia with a t(11;17)(q23;q25)

MLL (ALL1, Htrx, HRX), which is located on chromosome band 11q23, frequently is rearranged in patients with therapy-related acute myeloid leukemia who previously were treated with DNA topoisomerase II inhibitors. In this study, we have identified a fusion partner of MLL in a 10-year-old female who developed therapy-related acute myeloid leukemia 17 months after treatment for Hodgkin’s disease. Leukemia cells of this patient had a t(11;17)(q23;q25), which involved MLL as demonstrated by Southern blot analysis. The partner gene was cloned from cDNA of the leukemia cells by use of a combination of adapter reverse transcriptase–PCR, rapid amplification of 5′ cDNA ends, and blast database analysis to identify expressed sequence tags. The full-length cDNA of 2.8 kb was found to be an additional member of the septin family, therefore it was named MSF (MLL septin-like fusion). Members of the septin family conserve the GTP binding domain, localize in the cytoplasm, and interact with cytoskeletal filaments. A major 4-kb transcript of MSF was expressed ubiquitously; a 1.7-kb transcript was found in most tissues. An additional 3-kb transcript was found only in hematopoietic tissues. By amplification with MLL exon 5 forward primer and reverse primers in MSF, the appropriately sized products were obtained. MSF is highly homologous to hCDCrel-1, which is a partner gene of MLL in leukemias with a t(11;22)(q23;q11.2). Further analysis of MSF may help to delineate the function of MLL partner genes in leukemia, particularly in therapy-related leukemia.

Single-strand interruptions in replicating chromosomes cause double-strand breaks

Replication-dependent chromosomal breakage suggests that replication forks occasionally run into nicks in template DNA and collapse, generating double-strand ends. To model replication fork collapse in vivo, I constructed phage λ chromosomes carrying the nicking site of M13 bacteriophage and infected with these substrates Escherichia coli cells, producing M13 nicking enzyme. I detected double-strand breaks at the nicking sites in λ DNA purified from these cells. The double-strand breakage depends on (i) the presence of the nicking site; (ii) the production of the nicking enzyme; and (iii) replication of the nick-containing chromosome. Replication fork collapse at nicks in template DNA explains diverse phenomena, including eukaryotic cell killing by DNA topoisomerase inhibitors and inviability of recombination-deficient vertebrate cell lines.

p34cdc2 kinase activity is maintained upon activation of the replication checkpoint in Schizosaccharomyces pombe.

All eukaryotes use feedback controls to order and coordinate cell cycle events. In Schizosaccharomyces pombe, several classes of checkpoint genes serve to ensure that DNA replication is complete and free of error before the onset of mitosis. Wild-type cells normally arrest upon inhibition of DNA synthesis or in response to DNA damage, although the exact mechanisms controlling this arrest are unclear. Genetic evidence in fission yeast suggests that the dependence of mitosis upon completion of DNA replication is linked to the regulation of the p34cdc2 cyclin-dependent kinase. It has been hypothesized that inhibition of DNA synthesis triggers down-regulation of p34cdc2 kinase activity, although this has never been shown biochemically. We analyzed the activity of p34cdc2 in wild-type and checkpoint-defective cells treated with a DNA synthesis inhibitor. Using standard in vitro assays we demonstrate that p34cdc2 kinase activity is maintained in wild-type cells arrested at the replication checkpoint. We also used a novel in vivo assay for p34cdc2 kinase activity, in which we expressed a fragment of the human retinoblastoma tumor suppressor protein in fission yeast. Phosphorylation of this fragment of the human retinoblastoma tumor suppressor protein is dependent on p34cdc2 kinase activity, and this activity is also maintained in cells arrested at the replication checkpoint. These data suggest that the mechanism for cell-cycle arrest in response to incomplete DNA synthesis is not dependent on the attenuation of p34cdc2 activity.

Epigenetic Therapy for the Treatment of Hypertension-Induced Cardiac Hypertrophy and Fibrosis

BACKGROUND: The development of heart failure is associated with changes in the size, shape, and structure of the heart that has a negative impact on cardiac function. These pathological changes involve excessive extracellular matrix deposition within the myocardial interstitium and myocyte hypertrophy. Alterations in fibroblast phenotype and myocyte activity are associated with reprogramming of gene transcriptional profiles that likely requires epigenetic alterations in chromatin structure. The aim of our work was to investigate the potential of a currently licensed anticancer epigenetic modifier as a treatment option for cardiac diseases associated with hypertension-induced cardiac hypertrophy and fibrosis.

METHODS AND RESULTS: The effects of DNA methylation inhibition with 5-azacytidine (5-aza) were examined in a human primary fibroblast cell line and in a spontaneously hypertensive rat (SHR) model. The results from this work allude to novel in vivo antifibrotic and antihypertrophic actions of 5-aza. Administration of the DNA methylation inhibitor significantly improved several echocardiographic parameters associated with hypertrophy and diastolic dysfunction. Myocardial collagen levels and myocyte size were reduced in 5-aza-treated SHRs. These findings are supported by beneficial in vitro effects in cardiac fibroblasts. Collagen I, collagen III, and α-smooth muscle actin were reduced in a human ventricular cardiac fibroblast cell line treated with 5-aza.

CONCLUSION: These findings suggest a role for epigenetic modifications in contributing to the profibrotic and hypertrophic changes evident during disease progression. Therapeutic intervention with 5-aza demonstrated favorable effects highlighting the potential use of this epigenetic modifier as a treatment option for cardiac pathologies associated with hypertrophy and fibrosis.

The Topoisomerase I Inhibitor Irinotecan and the Tyrosyl-DNA Phosphodiesterase 1 Inhibitor Furamidine Synergistically Suppress Murine Lupus Nephritis

OBJECTIVE The treatment of lupus nephritis is still an unmet medical need requiring new therapeutic approaches. Our group found recently that irinotecan, an inhibitor of topoisomerase I (topo I), reversed proteinuria and prolonged survival in mice with advanced lupus nephritis. While irinotecan is known to stabilize the complex of topo I and DNA, the enzyme tyrosyl-DNA phosphodiesterase 1 (TDP-1) functions in an opposing manner by releasing topo I from DNA. Therefore, we undertook this study to test whether the TDP-1 inhibitor furamidine has an additional effect on lupus nephritis when used in combination with irinotecan. METHODS NZB/NZW mice were treated with low-dose irinotecan and furamidine either alone or in combination beginning at age 26 weeks. DNA relaxation was visualized using gel electrophoresis. Binding of anti-double-stranded DNA (anti-dsDNA) antibodies to DNA modified by topo I, TDP-1, and the topo I inhibitor camptothecin was determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. RESULTS Compared to treatment with either agent alone, simultaneous treatment with low-dose irinotecan and furamidine significantly improved survival of NZB/NZW mice. Similar to what has been previously shown for irinotecan alone, the combination treatment did not change the levels of anti-dsDNA antibodies. In vitro, recombinant TDP-1 increased topo I-mediated DNA relaxation, resulting in enhanced binding of anti-dsDNA antibodies. In combination with topo I and camptothecin, TDP-1 reversed the inhibitory effects of camptothecin on DNA relaxation and anti-dsDNA binding. CONCLUSION Affecting DNA relaxation by the enzymes topo I and TDP-1 and their inhibitors may be a promising approach for the development of new targeted therapies for systemic lupus erythematosus.