Cyclic behaviour of RC elements with plain reinforcing bars

O comportamento cíclico das estruturas de betão armado é fortemente condicionado pelo mecanismo de aderência entre o betão e o aço. O escorregamento relativo entre os dois materiais, resultante da degradação progressiva da aderência em elementos solicitados por ações cíclicas, é uma causa frequente de danos graves e até do colapso de estruturas devido à ocorrência de sismos. Entre as estruturas existentes de betão armado que foram dimensionadas e construídas antes da entrada em vigor dos regulamentos sísmicos atuais, muitas foram construídas com armadura lisa, e portanto, possuem fracas propriedades de aderência. A informação disponível na literatura sobre o comportamento cíclico de elementos estruturais de betão armado com armadura lisa é reduzida e a influência das propriedades da aderência associadas a este tipo de armadura no comportamento cíclico das estruturas existentes não se encontra ainda devidamente estudada. O objectivo principal desta tese foi estudar a influência do escorregamento na resposta cíclica de elementos estruturais de betão armado com armadura lisa. Foram realizados ensaios cíclicos em elementos do tipo nó viga-pilar, construídos à escala real, representativos de ligações interiores em edifícios existentes sem pormenorização específica para resistir às ações sísmicas. Para comparação, foi realizado o ensaio de um nó construído com armadura nervurada. Foi ainda realizado o ensaio cíclico de uma viga de betão armado recolhida de uma estrutura antiga. Foram elaborados modelos numéricos não-lineares para simular a resposta dos elementos ensaiados, concentrando especial atenção no mecanismo do escorregamento. Os resultados obtidos no âmbito desta tese contribuem para o avanço do conhecimento sobre o comportamento cíclico de elementos estruturais de betão armado com armadura lisa. As análises numéricas realizadas comprovam a necessidade de incluir os efeitos do escorregamento na modelação numérica deste tipo de estruturas de forma a representar com rigor a sua resposta às ações cíclicas.

La adquisición de las cláusulas interrogativas parciales en el Español infantil: ¿Reglas innatas o fórmulas aprendidas?

Abstract According to Usage-based Theory (Tomasello 2006), children acquire wh- questions by initially producing concrete formula structures that happen to be very frequent in the input. In this research we analyze the wh-questions produced by three Spanish-speaking children (age range: 0;11-3;11) in longitudinal samples of spontaneous speech to determine whether the Usage-based Theory can explain the wh-question acquisition in Spanish. Results show that: i) the first wh-questions are formula, that appeared with few interrogative particles, and that are highly frequent in the input; ii) as the child develops, wh-questions become more complex, in which this structures are produced with more varied interrogative particles and different verbs; iii) the input seems to play a relevant role in the acquisition of wh-questions. Results seem to validate the Usage-based Theory.

Magnetic resonance imaging in the diagnosis of type 1 dermoid sinus in two Rhodesian ridgeback dogs

Two cases of type 1 dermoid sinus in Rhodesian ridgebacks are described, with emphasis on the use of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in the diagnosis and delineation of the lesions. Magnetic resonance imaging was useful in identifying fluid-filled structures, fibrous capsules, and sinus tracts, but was not able to identify the termination of the tracts.

Ponte mista de madeira-concreto em vigas treliçadas de madeira

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES)

Composite connections in slim-floor system: An experimental study

This paper reports the results of full-scale tests in beam-to-column connections for composite slim floor systems, including tests on Bare Steel connection and composite connection. The tested system consists of a concrete-filled composite column and a composite floor where an asymmetric steel beam is connected to a composite column by shear steel plates. Tests results previously obtained on partially encased composite beams were used to define the position of the headed studs in the slim floor system. Based on the obtained results of connections, the composite and Bare Steel connection behaved as semi-rigid and nominally pinned respectively. The tests results also indicated a significant contribution of the slim floor to the moment capacity of the connection. (C) 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Strutture a pareti portanti in C. A. caratterizzate da elevate prestazioni sismiche

Per quanto riguarda le costruzioni in conglomerato cementizio armato gettato in opera, i sistemi strutturali più comunemente utilizzati sono quelli a telaio (con trasmissione di momento flettente), a setti portanti o una combinazione di entrambi. A partire dagli anni ’60, numerosissimi sono stati gli studi relativamente al comportamento sismico di strutture in c.a. a telaio. Lo stesso si può affermare per le costruzioni costituite da pareti miste a telai. In particolare, l’argomento della progettazione sismica di tali tipologie di edifici ha sempre riguardato soprattutto gli edifici alti nei quali, evidentemente, l’impiego delle pareti avveniva allo scopo di limitarne la elevata deformabilità. Il comportamento sismico di strutture realizzate interamente a pareti portanti in c.a. è stato meno studiato negli anni, nonostante si sia osservato che edifici realizzati mediante tali sistemi strutturali abbiano mostrato, in generale, pregevoli risorse di resistenza nei confronti di terremoti anche di elevata intensità. Negli ultimi 10 anni, l’ingegneria sismica si sta incentrando sull’approfondimento delle risorse di tipologie costruttive di cui si è sempre fatto largo uso in passato (tipicamente nei paesi dell’Europa continentale, in America latina, negli USA e anche in Italia), ma delle quali mancavano adeguate conoscenze scientifiche relativamente al loro comportamento in zona sismica. Tali tipologie riguardano sostanzialmente sistemi strutturali interamente costituiti da pareti portanti in c.a. per edifici di modesta altezza, usualmente utilizzati in un’edilizia caratterizzata da ridotti costi di realizzazione (fabbricati per abitazioni civili e/o uffici). Obiettivo “generale” del lavoro di ricerca qui presentato è lo studio del comportamento sismico di strutture realizzate interamente a setti portanti in c.a. e di modesta altezza (edilizia caratterizzata da ridotti costi di realizzazione). In particolare, le pareti che si intendono qui studiare sono caratterizzate da basse percentuali geometriche di armatura e sono realizzate secondo la tecnologia del cassero a perdere. A conoscenza dello scrivente, non sono mai stati realizzati, fino ad oggi, studi sperimentali ed analitici allo scopo di determinare il comportamento sismico di tali sistemi strutturali, mentre è ben noto il loro comportamento statico. In dettaglio, questo lavoro di ricerca ha il duplice scopo di: • ottenere un sistema strutturale caratterizzato da elevate prestazioni sismiche; • mettere a punto strumenti applicativi (congruenti e compatibili con le vigenti normative e dunque immediatamente utilizzabili dai progettisti) per la progettazione sismica dei pannelli portanti in c.a. oggetto del presente studio. Al fine di studiare il comportamento sismico e di individuare gli strumenti pratici per la progettazione, la ricerca è stata organizzata come segue: • identificazione delle caratteristiche delle strutture studiate, mediante lo sviluppo/specializzazione di opportune formulazioni analitiche; • progettazione, supervisione, ed interpretazione di una estesa campagna di prove sperimentali eseguita su pareti portanti in c.a. in vera grandezza, al fine di verificarne l’efficace comportamento sotto carico ciclico; • sviluppo di semplici indicazioni (regole) progettuali relativamente alle strutture a pareti in c.a. studiate, al fine di ottenere le caratteristiche prestazionali desiderate. I risultati delle prove sperimentali hanno mostrato di essere in accordo con le previsioni analitiche, a conferma della validità degli strumenti di predizione del comportamento di tali pannelli. Le elevatissime prestazioni riscontrate sia in termini di resistenza che in termini di duttilità hanno evidenziato come le strutture studiate, così messe a punto, abbiano manifestato un comportamento sismico più che soddisfacente.

Endoscopic ultrasonography for the diagnosis of intrathoracic lesions in two dogs.

Endoscopic ultrasound was developed initially in humans to overcome limitations of conventional ultrasound in examining certain internal organs due to intervening bone or air-filled structures. Endoscopic ultrasound has been used most widely in investigation of the gastrointestinal tract in humans, but many intrathoracic applications as well as endoscopic ultrasound-guided techniques have recently been described. Mediastinal and pulmonary structures can be examined with endoscopic ultrasound since a high frequency ultrasound probe can be brought into close contact with the areas of interest via a transesophageal approach. The purpose of this report is to describe the application of endoscopic ultrasound as an aid in the diagnosis of intrathoracic disease in the dog. Two dogs, one with a history of prior esophageal foreign body extraction, the other with apathy, weakness and dyspnea were referred for further investigation. Both dogs had caudal intrathoracic soft tissue opacities diagnosed radiographically, but their origin and nature were difficult to determine. Conventional ultrasound was limiting in both dogs due to their location and superimposition of gas-filled structures. With endosonography lesions were characterized more completely. We have found endoscopic ultrasound to be an elegant diagnostic tool for the investigation of radiographically detected intrathoracic lesions in the dog whose origins are difficult to determine or do not lend themselves to investigation by conventional ultrasound. Endoscopic ultrasound provides valuable diagnostic information complementary to that provided radiographically which aids in therapeutic planning. Endoscopic ultrasound was also more sensitive for detecting mediastinal lymphadenomegaly than radiography in one of the dogs. An additional advantage of endoscopic ultrasound is the fact that US-guided tissue sampling can be performed during the examination.

Properties of aluminium nodules foamed with concentrated solar energy

Commercial aluminium foam filled structures and sandwich panels are available for structural applications. As alternative to these materials, small granular foamed pieces are proposed to fill structures as well as sandwich panels. On the present work, foam precursors are obtained by Powder Metallurgy (PM) route, using natural calcium carbonate as foaming agent instead of titanium hydride. Extruded precursor bars were cut into small pieces (around 4.5 mm long and 5mm in diameter). Foaming treatment was carried out on two different ways: electrical preheated furnace and by solar furnace. Foamed nodules presented a low cell size, density e.g. 0.67 g/cm3 to 0.88 g/cm3 and a height/diameter ratio between 0.72 and 0.84 as a function of precursor size. These properties depend on the foaming particle size, foaming cycle and precursor dimensions. Carbonate precursors are easily foamed by concentrated solar energy, due to the lower risk of cell collapse than with hydride precursors, resulting from cell stabilization by oxide skin formation into cells and a low degree of foamed nodules bonding.

Methodology based on FBG sensors for monitoring of FRP-strengthened beams

Advanced composite materials are increasingly used in the strengthening of reinforced concrete (RC) structures. The use of externally bonded strips made of fibre-reinforced plastics (FRP) as strengthening method has gained widespread acceptance in recent years since it has many advantages over the traditional techniques. However, unfortunately, this strengthening method is often associated with a brittle and sudden failure caused by some form of FRP bond failure, originated at the termination of the FRP material or at intermediate areas in the vicinity of flexural cracks in the RC beam. Up to date, little effort in the early prediction of the debonding in its initial instants even though this effect is not noticeable by simple visual observation. An early detection of this phenomenon might help in taking actions to prevent future catastrophes. Fibre-optic Bragg grating (FBG) sensors are able to measure strains locally with high resolution and accuracy. Furthermore, as their physical size is extremely small compared with other strain measuring components, it enables to be embedded at the concrete-FRP interface for determining the strain distribution without influencing the mechanical properties of the host materials. This paper shows the development of a debonding identification methodology based on strains experimentally measured. For, it a simplified model is implemented to simulate the behaviour of FRP-strengthened reinforced concrete beams. This model is taken as a basis to. develop an model updating procedure able to detect minor debonding at the concrete-FRP interface from experimental strains obtained by using FBG sensors embedded at the interface

A simplified spectral approachfor impedance-based damage identification of frp-strengthened rc beams

Hoy en día, el refuerzo y reparación de estructuras de hormigón armado mediante el pegado de bandas de polímeros reforzados con fibras (FRP) se emplea cada vez con más frecuencia a causa de sus numerosas ventajas. Sin embargo, las vigas reforzadas con esta técnica pueden experimentar un modo de fallo frágil a causa del despegue repentino de la banda de FRP a partir de una fisura intermedia. A pesar de su importancia, el número de trabajos que abordan el estudio de este mecanismo de fallo y su monitorización es muy limitado. Por ello, el desarrollo de metodologías capaces de monitorizar a largo plazo la adherencia de este refuerzo a las estructuras de hormigón e identificar cuándo se inicia el despegue de la banda constituyen un importante desafío a abordar. El principal objetivo de esta tesis es la implementación de una metodología fiable y efectiva, capaz de detectar el despegue de una banda de FRP en una viga de hormigón armado a partir de una fisura intermedia. Para alcanzar este objetivo se ha implementado un procedimiento de calibración numérica a partir de ensayos experimentales. Para ello, en primer lugar, se ha desarrollado un modelo numérico unidimensional simple y no costoso representativo del comportamiento de este tipo vigas de hormigón reforzadas con FRP, basado en un modelo de fisura discreta para el hormigón y el método de elementos espectrales. La formación progresiva de fisuras a flexion y el consiguiente despegue en la interface entre el hormigón y el FRP se formulan mediante la introducción de un nuevo elemento capaz de representar ambos fenómenos simultáneamente sin afectar al procedimiento numérico. Además, con el modelo propuesto, se puede obtener de una forma sencilla la respuesta dinámica en altas frecuencias de este tipo de estructuras, lo cual puede hacer muy útil su uso como herramienta de diagnosis y detección del despegue en su fase inicial mediante una monitorización de la variación de las características dinámicas locales de la estructura. Un método de evaluación no destructivo muy prometedor para la monitorización local de las estructuras es el método de la impedancia usando sensores-actuadores piezoeléctricos (PZT). La impedancia eléctrica de los sensores PZT se puede relacionar con la impedancia mecánica de las estructuras donde se encuentran adheridos Ya que la impedancia mecánica de una estructura se verá afectada por su deterioro, se pueden implementar indicadores de daño mediante una comparación del espectro de admitancia (inversa de la impedancia) a lo largo de distintas etapas durante el periodo de servicio de una estructura. Cualquier cambio en el espectro se podría interpretar como una variación en la integridad de la estructura. La impedancia eléctrica se mide a altas frecuencias con lo cual esta metodología debería ser muy sensible a la detección de estados de daño incipiente local, tal como se desea en la aplicación de este trabajo. Se ha implementado un elemento espectral PZT-FRP como extensión del modelo previamente desarrollado, con el objetivo de poder calcular numéricamente la impedancia eléctrica de sensores PZT adheridos a bandas de FRP sobre una viga de hormigón armado. El modelo, combinado con medidas experimentales captadas mediante sensores PZT, se implementa en el marco de una metodología de calibración de modelos para detectar cuantitativamente el despegue en la interfase entre una banda de FRP y una viga de hormigón. El procedimiento de optimización se resuelve empleando el método del enjambre cooperativo con un algoritmo bagging. Los resultados muestran una gran aproximación en la estimación del daño para el problema propuesto. Adicionalmente, se ha desarrollado también un método adaptativo para el mallado de elementos espectrales con el objetivo de localizar las zonas dañadas a partir de los resultados experimentales, el cual contribuye a aumentar la robustez y efectividad del método propuesto a la hora de identificar daños incipientes en su aparición inicial. Finalmente, se ha llevado a cabo un procedimiento de optimización multi-objetivo para detectar el despegue inicial en una viga de hormigón a escala real reforzada con FRP a partir de las impedancias captadas con una red de sensores PZT instrumentada a lo largo de la longitud de la viga. Cada sensor aporta los datos para definir cada una de las funciones objetivo que definen el procedimiento. Combinando el modelo previo de elementos espectrales con un algoritmo PSO multi-objetivo el procedimiento de detección de daño resultante proporciona resultados satisfactorios considerando la escala de la estructura y todas las incertidumbres características ligadas a este proceso. Los resultados obtenidos prueban la viabilidad y capacidad de los métodos antes mencionados y también su potencial en aplicaciones reales. Abstract Nowadays, the external bonding of fibre reinforced polymer (FRP) plates or sheets is increasingly used for the strengthening and retrofitting of reinforced concrete (RC) structures due to its numerous advantages. However, this kind of strengthening often leads to brittle failure modes being the most dominant failure mode the debonding induced by an intermediate crack (IC). In spite of its importance, the number of studies regarding the IC debonding mechanism and bond health monitoring is very limited. Methodologies able to monitor the long-term efficiency of bonding and successfully identify the initiation of FRP debonding constitute a challenge to be met. The main purpose of this thesisis the implementation of a reliable and effective methodology of damage identification able to detect intermediate crack debonding in FRP-strengthened RC beams. To achieve this goal, a model updating procedure based on numerical simulations and experimental tests has been implemented. For it, firstly, a simple and non-expensive one-dimensional model based on the discrete crack approach for concrete and the spectral element method has been developed. The progressive formation of flexural cracks and subsequent concrete-FRP interfacial debonding is formulated by the introduction of a new element able to represent both phenomena simultaneously without perturbing the numerical procedure. Furthermore, with the proposed model, high frequency dynamic response for these kinds of structures can also be obtained in a very simple and non-expensive way, which makes this procedure very useful as a tool for diagnoses and detection of debonding in its initial stage by monitoring the change in local dynamic characteristics. One very promising active non-destructive evaluation method for local monitoring is impedance-based structural health monitoring(SHM)using piezoelectric ceramic (PZT) sensor-actuators. The electrical impedance of the PZT can be directly related to the mechanical impedance of the host structural component where the PZT transducers are attached. Since the structural mechanical impedance will be affected by the presence of structural damage, comparisons of admittance (inverse of impedance) spectra at various times during the service period of the structure can be used as damage indicator. Any change in the spectra might be an indication of a change in the structural integrity. The electrical impedance is measured at high frequencies with which this methodology appears to be very sensitive to incipient damage in structural systems as desired for our application. Abonded-PZT-FRP spectral beam element approach based on an extension of the previous discrete crack approach is implemented in the calculation of the electrical impedance of the PZT transducer bonded to the FRP plates of a RC beam. This approach in conjunction with the experimental measurements of PZT actuator-sensors mounted on the structure is used to present an updating methodology to quantitatively detect interfacial debonding between a FRP strip and the host RC structure. The updating procedure is solved by using an ensemble particle swarm optimization approach with abagging algorithm, and the results demonstrate a big improvement for the performance and accuracy of the damage detection in the proposed problem. Additionally, an adaptive strategy of spectral element mesh has been also developed to detect damage location with experimental results, which shows the robustness and effectiveness of the proposed method to identify initial and incipient damages at its early stage. Lastly, multi-objective optimization has been carried out to detect debonding damage in a real scale FRP-strengthened RC beam by using impedance signatures. A net of PZT sensors is distributed along the beam to construct impedance-based multiple objectives under gradually induced damage scenario. By combining the spectral element model presented previously and an ensemble multi-objective PSO algorithm, the implemented damage detection process yields satisfactory predictions considering the scale and uncertainties of the structure. The obtained results prove the feasibility and capability of the aforementioned methods and also their potentials in real engineering applications.

Corrosión de armaduras en el hormigón armado en ambiente marino aéreo

La presente tesis doctoral surge ante la necesidad de completar el estudio sobre la corrosión en el hormigón armado expuesto al ambiente marino iniciado por D. Miguel Ángel Bermúdez Odriozola en 2007 con la tesis doctoral con título “Corrosión de las armaduras del hormigón armado en ambiente marino: zona de carrera de mareas y zona sumergida”. Una vez realizado el estudio bibliográfico, se ha planteado un estudio experimental en el que se analizan cuatro muelles de distintas edades y localizados en distintos lugares de la geografía española. Uno de ellos contiene adiciones en el hormigón. Una vez inspeccionados, se extraen testigos de cada uno de ellos con el fin de realizar ensayos de caracterización y se analizan sus resultados en paralelo con los coeficientes de difusión. Uno se los objetivos ha sido comprobar el mejor método de ensayo que permita controlar la durabilidad del hormigón en ambiente IIIa. La tesis que se presenta ha demostrado la efectividad del ensayo de penetración de agua para discriminar los hormigones que presentarán un buen comportamiento frente a la difusión de cloruros y por tanto para predecir la vida útil de la estructura. Asimismo, otro objetivo ha sido valorar el uso de adiciones en el hormigón y cómo afectan a la mejora del comportamiento del hormigón expuesto al ambiente marino. Se han obtenido valores del coeficiente de eficacia de cenizas volantes y humo de sílice frente a la difusión de cloruros, muy superiores a los actualmente considerados en términos de resistencia. El ambiente marino aéreo engloba estructuras situadas en primera línea de costa así como aquellas que se sitúan hasta 5km de distancia de la línea del mar. La investigación realizada ha demostrado la necesidad de establecer una nueva subdivisión en este ambiente introduciendo la zona Spray, siguiendo criterios internacionales, que permita diferenciar la zona más desfavorable del mismo que comprende las estructuras ubicadas sobre el nivel del mar tal como los tableros de pantalanes portuarios estudiados. Se han analizado en profundidad los valores del contenido de cloruros en superficie de hormigón en los diferentes tipos de ambiente marino recogidos por la Instrucción EHE- 08 contrastando los requisitos normativos. Como conclusión se han hecho nuevas propuestas normativas que afectan al ambiente sumergido y al ambiente marino aéreo (zona spray). Asimismo se ha realizado un análisis en profundidad de la concentración crítica de cloruros recogida por la Instrucción EHE-08, a partir de los datos obtenidos en estructuras reales. Se ha evaluado el ensayo de resistividad para estimar el valor del coeficiente de difusión de cloruros. Este ensayo ha demostrado su efectividad para discriminar hormigones con adiciones y con muy baja penetración de agua, si bien no resulta sensible para detectar hormigones con elevada permeabilidad. Finalmente en la tesis se ha obtenido un modelo de difusión de cloruros (a/c-D) en ambiente marino aéreo a fin de poder estimar la difusión de cloruros en el hormigón a partir de un requisito normativo como es la relación a/c. This Thesis is focussed to complete the previous study on the corrosion of reinforced concrete exposed to marine environment, carried out by Dr. Miguel Ángel Bermúdez Odrizola in 2007. That Thesis title was “Corrosion of concrete reinforcement located in marine environment: tidal zone and submerged zone”. After the literature review presented in the State of the Art, an experimental programme was carried out. Four docks of different ages and locations have been studied, one of them was a fly ash concrete. The structures were inspected on site and several cores extracted in order to develop characterization tests and obtain diffusion profiles at the laboratory. One of the objectives has been to check the best laboratory test method to control concrete durability when exposed to atmospheric marine environment. This Thesis has proven the effectiveness of the water penetration test to differentiate concretes well behaved against chloride diffusion and also to predict the structure service life. Another objective has been to study the effect of mineral additions in concrete and how they improve the durability of concrete in this environment. Efficiency factors have been obtained for fly ashes and silica fume, much higher than those consider for strength. According to the Spanish Concrete Code EHE 08, the atmospheric marine environment includes structures located at the cost, from the sea line up to 5km inland. The research conducted has shown the need to consider a spray zone which is the most unfavourable area of the atmospheric environment, affecting structures over the sea level as the decks of the wharves here studied. Surface chloride contents of structures in the different marine environments have been deeply analysed, checking the actual standard limits. As a conclusion, new normative values have been proposed for submerged and atmospheric zone (spray zone). A complete analysis of the chloride threshold concentration from the data obtained in real structures has also been performed. It has been evaluated the resistivity test as a tool to estimate the chloride diffusion coefficient. This test has proven effectiveness to discriminate concrete with mineral additions and low water penetration values, while it is not sensitive to detect concretes with high permeability. Finally, a chloride diffusion model (w/c) has been obtained in atmospheric marine environment in order to estimate the chloride diffusion of the concrete knowing a normative requirement as w/c.

Estimación de la resistencia de estructuras de hormigón armado reforzadas a cortante mediante FRP

El empleo de refuerzos de FRP en vigas de hormigón armado es cada vez más frecuente por sus numerosas ventajas frente a otros métodos más tradicionales. Durante los últimos años, la técnica FRP-NSM, consistente en introducir barras de FRP sobre el recubrimiento de una viga de hormigón, se ha posicionado como uno de los mejores métodos de refuerzo y rehabilitación de estructuras de hormigón armado, tanto por su facilidad de montaje y mantenimiento, como por su rendimiento para aumentar la capacidad resistente de dichas estructuras. Si bien el refuerzo a flexión ha sido ampliamente desarrollado y estudiado hasta la fecha, no sucede lo mismo con el refuerzo a cortante, debido principalmente a su gran complejidad. Sin embargo, se debería dedicar más estudio a este tipo de refuerzo si se pretenden conservar los criterios de diseño en estructuras de hormigón armado, los cuales están basados en evitar el fallo a cortante por sus consecuencias catastróficas Esta ausencia de información y de normativa es la que justifica esta tesis doctoral. En este pro-yecto se van a desarrollar dos metodologías alternativas, que permiten estimar la capacidad resistente de vigas de hormigón armado, reforzadas a cortante mediante la técnica FRP-NSM. El primer método aplicado consiste en la implementación de una red neuronal artificial capaz de predecir adecuadamente la resistencia a cortante de vigas reforzadas con este método a partir de experimentos anteriores. Asimismo, a partir de la red se han llevado a cabo algunos estudios a fin de comprender mejor la influencia real de algunos parámetros de la viga y del refuerzo sobre la resistencia a cortante con el propósito de lograr diseños más seguros de este tipo de refuerzo. Una configuración óptima de la red requiere discriminar adecuadamente de entre los numerosos parámetros (geométricos y de material) que pueden influir en el compor-tamiento resistente de la viga, para lo cual se han llevado a cabo diversos estudios y pruebas. Mediante el segundo método, se desarrolla una ecuación de proyecto que permite, de forma sencilla, estimar la capacidad de vigas reforzadas a cortante con FRP-NSM, la cual podría ser propuesta para las principales guías de diseño. Para alcanzar este objetivo, se plantea un pro-blema de optimización multiobjetivo a partir de resultados de ensayos experimentales llevados a cabo sobre vigas de hormigón armado con y sin refuerzo de FRP. El problema multiobjetivo se resuelve mediante algoritmos genéticos, en concreto el algoritmo NSGA-II, por ser más apropiado para problemas con varias funciones objetivo que los métodos de optimización clásicos. Mediante una comparativa de las predicciones realizadas con ambos métodos y de los resulta-dos de ensayos experimentales se podrán establecer las ventajas e inconvenientes derivadas de la aplicación de cada una de las dos metodologías. Asimismo, se llevará a cabo un análisis paramétrico con ambos enfoques a fin de intentar determinar la sensibilidad de aquellos pa-rámetros más sensibles a este tipo de refuerzo. Finalmente, se realizará un análisis estadístico de la fiabilidad de las ecuaciones de diseño deri-vadas de la optimización multiobjetivo. Con dicho análisis se puede estimar la capacidad resis-tente de una viga reforzada a cortante con FRP-NSM dentro de un margen de seguridad espe-cificado a priori. ABSTRACT The use of externally bonded (EB) fibre-reinforced polymer (FRP) composites has gained acceptance during the last two decades in the construction engineering community, particularly in the rehabilitation of reinforced concrete (RC) structures. Currently, to increase the shear resistance of RC beams, FRP sheets are externally bonded (EB-FRP) and applied on the external side surface of the beams to be strengthened with different configurations. Of more recent application, the near-surface mounted FRP bar (NSM-FRP) method is another technique successfully used to increase the shear resistance of RC beams. In the NSM method, FRP rods are embedded into grooves intentionally prepared in the concrete cover of the side faces of RC beams. While flexural strengthening has been widely developed and studied so far, the same doesn´t occur to shearing strength mainly due to its great complexity. Nevertheless, if design criteria are to be preserved more research should be done to this sort of strength, which are based on avoiding shear failure and its catastrophic consequences. However, in spite of this, accurately calculating the shear capacity of FRP shear strengthened RC beams remains a complex challenge that has not yet been fully resolved due to the numerous variables involved in the procedure. The objective of this Thesis is to develop methodologies to evaluate the capacity of FRP shear strengthened RC beams by dealing with the problem from a different point of view to the numerical modeling approach by using artificial intelligence techniques. With this purpose two different approaches have been developed: one concerned with the use of artificial neural networks and the other based on the implementation of an optimization approach developed jointly with the use of artificial neural networks (ANNs) and solved with genetic algorithms (GAs). With these approaches some of the difficulties concerned regarding the numerical modeling can be overcome. As an alternative tool to conventional numerical techniques, neural networks do not provide closed form solutions for modeling problems but do, however, offer a complex and accurate solution based on a representative set of historical examples of the relationship. Furthermore, they can adapt solutions over time to include new data. On the other hand, as a second proposal, an optimization approach has also been developed to implement simple yet accurate shear design equations for this kind of strengthening. This approach is developed in a multi-objective framework by considering experimental results of RC beams with and without NSM-FRP. Furthermore, the results obtained with the previous scheme based on ANNs are also used as a filter to choose the parameters to include in the design equations. Genetic algorithms are used to solve the optimization problem since they are especially suitable for solving multi-objective problems when compared to standard optimization methods. The key features of the two proposed procedures are outlined and their performance in predicting the capacity of NSM-FRP shear strengthened RC beams is evaluated by comparison with results from experimental tests and with predictions obtained using a simplified numerical model. A sensitivity study of the predictions of both models for the input parameters is also carried out.

Diseño de una edificación usando secciones mixtas

RESUMEN Ante el incremento del uso de los perfiles de acero en nuestro medio, de una manera empírica en muchos de los casos, lo cual se convierte en una amenaza que atenta contra la seguridad de las personas, se realiza este trabajo que servirá como guía a todos los profesionales interesados en incrementar sus conocimientos e incursionar en cálculo y diseño de elementos estructurales usando secciones mixtas. Se explica el cálculo y diseño de secciones mixtas, específicamente de entrepisos con losa colaborante sobre vigas construidas, columnas tubulares rellenas de hormigón, usando el método LRFD, ejemplificados en una estructura que fue calculada usando secciones de acero únicamente. Los resultados de los dos análisis se tabulan y se compara el peso de acero que se necesita cuando se calcula como elementos de acero solo, con el peso que se necesita cuando se calcula el acero trabajando en conjunto con el hormigón.

Model Based Estimating System for Civil Concrete Structures

An earlier CRC-CI project on ‘automatic estimating’ (AE) has shown the key benefit of model-based design methodologies in building design and construction to be the provision of timely quantitative cost evaluations. Furthermore, using AE during design improves design options, and results in improved design turn-around times, better design quality and/or lower costs. However, AEs for civil engineering structures do not exist; and research partners in the CRC-CI expressed interest in exploring the development of such a process. This document reports on these investigations. The central objective of the study was to evaluate the benefits and costs of developing an AE for concrete civil engineering works. By studying existing documents and through interviews with design engineers, contractors and estimators, we have established that current civil engineering practices (mainly roads/bridges) do not use model-based planning/design. Drawings are executed in 2D and only completed at the end of lengthy planning/design project management lifecycle stages. We have also determined that estimating plays two important, but different roles. The first is part of project management (which we have called macro level estimating). Estimating in this domain sets project budgets, controls quality delivery and contains costs. The second role is estimating during planning/design (micro level estimating). The difference between the two roles is that the former is performed at the end of various lifecycle stages, whereas the latter is performed at any suitable time during planning/design.

A framework for predicting the residual load carrying capacity of concrete structures exposed to aggressive environments

Reinforced concrete structures are susceptible to a variety of deterioration mechanisms due to creep and shrinkage, alkali-silica reaction (ASR), carbonation, and corrosion of the reinforcement. The deterioration problems can affect the integrity and load carrying capacity of the structure. Substantial research has been dedicated to these various mechanisms aiming to identify the causes, reactions, accelerants, retardants and consequences. This has improved our understanding of the long-term behaviour of reinforced concrete structures. However, the strengthening of reinforced concrete structures for durability has to date been mainly undertaken after expert assessment of field data followed by the development of a scheme to both terminate continuing degradation, by separating the structure from the environment, and strengthening the structure. The process does not include any significant consideration of the residual load-bearing capacity of the structure and the highly variable nature of estimates of such remaining capacity. Development of performance curves for deteriorating bridge structures has not been attempted due to the difficulty in developing a model when the input parameters have an extremely large variability. This paper presents a framework developed for an asset management system which assesses residual capacity and identifies the most appropriate rehabilitation method for a given reinforced concrete structure exposed to aggressive environments. In developing the framework, several industry consultation sessions have been conducted to identify input data required, research methodology and output knowledge base. Capturing expert opinion in a useable knowledge base requires development of a rule based formulation, which can subsequently be used to model the reliability of the performance curve of a reinforced concrete structure exposed to a given environment.