Leptin Targets in the Mouse Brain

The central actions of leptin are essential for homeostatic control of adipose tissue mass, glucose metabolism, and many autonomic and neuroendocrine systems. In the brain, leptin acts on numerous different cell types via the long-form leptin receptor (LepRb) to elicit its effects. The precise identification of leptin`s cellular targets is fundamental to understanding the mechanism of its pleiotropic central actions. We have systematically characterized LepRb distribution in the mouse brain using in situ hybridization in wildtype mice as well as by EYFP immunoreactivity in a novel LepRb-IRES-Cre EYFP reporter mouse line showing high levels of LepRb mRNA/EYFP coexpression. We found substantial LepRb mRNA and EYFP expression in hypothalamic and extrahypothalamic sites described before, including the dorsomedial nucleus of the hypothalamus, ventral premammillary nucleus, ventral tegmental area, parabrachial nucleus, and the dorsal vagal complex. Expression in insular cortex, lateral septal nucleus, medial preoptic area, rostral linear nucleus, and in the Edinger-Westphal nucleus was also observed and had been previously unreported. The LepRb-IRES-Cre reporter line was used to chemically characterize a population of leptin receptor-expressing neurons in the midbrain. Tyrosine hydroxylase and Cre reporter were found to be coexpressed in the ventral tegmental area and in other midbrain dopaminergic neurons. Lastly, the LepRbI-RES-Cre reporter line was used to map the extent of peripheral leptin sensing by central nervous system (CNS) LepRb neurons. Thus, we provide data supporting the use of the LepRb-IRES-Cre line for the assessment of the anatomic and functional characteristics of neurons expressing leptin receptor. J. Comp. Neurol. 514:518-532, 2009. (C) 2009 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

NUCEL (Cell and Molecular Therapy Center): A multidisciplinary center for translational research in Brazil

Social and economical development is closely associated with technological innovation and a well-developed biotechnological industry. In the last few years, Brazil`s scientific production has been steadily increasing; however, the number of patents is lagging behind, with technological and translational research requiring governmental incentive and reinforcement. The Cell and Molecular Therapy Center (NUCEL) was created to develop activities in the translational research field, addressing concrete problems found in biomedical and veterinary areas and actively searching for solutions by employing a genetic engineering approach to generate cell lines over-expressing recombinant proteins to be transferred to local biotech companies, aiming at furthering the development of a national competence for local production of biopharmaceuticals of widespread use and of life-saving importance. To this end, mammalian cell engineering technologies were used to generate cell lines over-expressing several different recombinant proteins of biomedical and biotechnological interest, namely, recombinant human Amylin/IAPP for diabetes treatment, human FVIII and FIX clotting factors for hemophilia, human and bovine FSH for fertility and reproduction, and human bone repair proteins (BMPs). Expression of some of these proteins is also being sought with the baculovirus/insect cell system (BEVS) which, in many cases, is able to deliver high-yield production of recombinant proteins with biological activity comparable to that of mammalian systems, but in a much more cost-effective manner. Transfer of some of these recombinant products to local Biotech companies has been pursued by taking advantage of the Sao Paulo State Foundation (FAPESP) and Federal Government (FINEP, CNPq) incentives for joint Research Development and Innovation partnership projects.

Gag-Pol supplied in trans is efficiently packaged and supports viral function in human immunodeficiency virus type 1

The intracellular trafficking and subsequent incorporation of Gag-Pol into human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) remains poorly defined. Gag-Pol is encoded by the same mRNA as Gag and is generated by ribosomal frameshifting. The multimerization of Gag and Gag-Pol is an essential step in the formation of infectious viral particles. In this study, we examined whether the interaction between Gag and Gag-Pol is initiated during protein translation in order to facilitate the trafficking and subsequent packaging of Gag-Pol into the virion. A conditional cotransfection system was developed in which virion formation required the coexpression of two HIV-1-based plasmids, one that produces both Gag and Gag-Pol and one that only produces Gag-Pol. The Gag-Pol proteins were either immunotagged with a His epitope or functionally tagged with a mutation (K65R) in reverse transcriptase that is associated with drug resistance. Gag-Pol packaging was assessed to determine whether the Gag-Pol incorporated into the virion was preferentially packaged from the plasmid that expressed both Gag and Gag-Pol or whether it could be packaged from either plasmid. Our data show that translation of Gag and Gag-Pol from the same mRNA is not critical for virion packaging of the Gag-Pol polyprotein or for viral function.

Assessing the gain of biological data integration in gene networks inference

Background: A current challenge in gene annotation is to define the gene function in the context of the network of relationships instead of using single genes. The inference of gene networks (GNs) has emerged as an approach to better understand the biology of the system and to study how several components of this network interact with each other and keep their functions stable. However, in general there is no sufficient data to accurately recover the GNs from their expression levels leading to the curse of dimensionality, in which the number of variables is higher than samples. One way to mitigate this problem is to integrate biological data instead of using only the expression profiles in the inference process. Nowadays, the use of several biological information in inference methods had a significant increase in order to better recover the connections between genes and reduce the false positives. What makes this strategy so interesting is the possibility of confirming the known connections through the included biological data, and the possibility of discovering new relationships between genes when observed the expression data. Although several works in data integration have increased the performance of the network inference methods, the real contribution of adding each type of biological information in the obtained improvement is not clear. Methods: We propose a methodology to include biological information into an inference algorithm in order to assess its prediction gain by using biological information and expression profile together. We also evaluated and compared the gain of adding four types of biological information: (a) protein-protein interaction, (b) Rosetta stone fusion proteins, (c) KEGG and (d) KEGG+GO. Results and conclusions: This work presents a first comparison of the gain in the use of prior biological information in the inference of GNs by considering the eukaryote (P. falciparum) organism. Our results indicates that information based on direct interaction can produce a higher improvement in the gain than data about a less specific relationship as GO or KEGG. Also, as expected, the results show that the use of biological information is a very important approach for the improvement of the inference. We also compared the gain in the inference of the global network and only the hubs. The results indicates that the use of biological information can improve the identification of the most connected proteins.

Divergent Roles of the CRH Receptors in the Control of Gonadotropin Secretion Induced by Acute Restraint Stress at Proestrus

CRH has been implicated as a mediator of stress-induced effects on the hypothalamus-pituitary-gonad axis, acting via CRH receptors in various brain regions. We investigated whether the effects of restraint stress on the secretion of gonadotropins on the morning of proestrus are mediated by the CRH-R1 or CRH-R2 receptors in the oval subdivision of the anterolateral BST, the central amygdala, the locus coeruleus (LC), or the A1 and A2 neuron groups in the medulla. At proestrus morning, rats were injected with antalarmin (a CRH-R1 antagonist), asstressin2-B (a CRH-R2 antagonist) or vehicles. Thirty minutes after the injection, the animals were placed into restraints for 30 min, and blood was sampled for 2 h. At the end of the experiment, the brains were removed for immunofluorescence analyses. Restraint stress increased the levels of FSH and LH. Antalarmin blocked the stress-induced increases in FSH and LH secretion, but astressin2-B only blocked the increase in FSH secretion. LC showed intense stress-induced neuronal activity. FOS/tyrosine-hydroxylase coexpression in LC was reduced by antalarmin, but not astressin2-B. The CRH-R1 receptor, more than CRH-R2 receptor, appears to be essential for the stimulation of the hypothalamus-pituitary-gonad axis by acute stress; this response is likely mediated in part by noradrenergic neurons in the LC. We postulate that the stress-induced facilitation of reproductive function is mediated, at least in part, by CRH action through CRH-R1 on noradrenaline neurons residing in the LC that trigger GnRH discharge and gonadotropin secretion. (Endocrinology 153: 4838-4848, 2012)

Using gene-network landscape to dissect genotype effects of TCF7L2 genetic variant on diabetes and cardiovascular risk

Vaquero AR, Ferreira NE, Omae SV, Rodrigues MV, Teixeira SK, Krieger JE, Pereira AC. Using gene-network landscape to dissect genotype effects of TCF7L2 genetic variant on diabetes and cardiovascular risk. Physiol Genomics 44: 903-914, 2012. First published August 7, 2012; doi:10.1152/physiolgenomics.00030.2012.-The single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) within the TCF7L2 gene, rs7903146, is, to date, the most significant genetic marker associated with Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) risk. Nonetheless, its functional role in disease pathology is poorly understood. The aim of the present study was to investigate, in vascular smooth muscle cells from 92 patients undergoing aortocoronary bypass surgery, the contribution of this SNP in T2DM using expression levels and expression correlation comparison approaches, which were visually represented as gene interaction networks. Initially, the expression levels of 41 genes (seven TCF7L2 splice forms and 40 other T2DM relevant genes) were compared between rs7903146 wild-type (CC) and T2DM-risk (CT + TT) genotype groups. Next, we compared the expression correlation patterns of these 41 genes between groups to observe if the relationships between genes were different. Five TCF7L2 splice forms and nine genes showed significant expression differences between groups. RXR alpha gene was pinpointed as showing the most different expression correlation pattern with other genes. Therefore, T2DM risk alleles appear to be influencing TCF7L2 splice form's expression in vascular smooth muscle cells, and RXR alpha gene is pointed out as a treatment target candidate for risk reduction in individuals with high risk of developing T2DM, especially individuals harboring TCF7L2 risk genotypes.

Gene Expression Profile in Response to Doxorubicin-Rapamycin Combined Treatment of HER-2-Overexpressing Human Mammary Epithelial Cell Lines

HER-2-positive breast cancers frequently sustain elevated AKT/mTOR signaling, which has been associated with resistance to doxorubicin treatment. Here, we investigated whether rapamycin, an mTOR inhibitor, increased the sensitivity to doxorubicin therapy in two HER-2-overexpressing cell lines: C5.2, which was derived from the parental HB4a by transfection with HER-2 and SKBR3, which exhibits HER-2 amplification. The epithelial mammary cell line HB4a was also analyzed. The combined treatment using 20 nmol/L of rapamycin and 30 nmol/L of doxorubicin arrested HB4a and C5.2 cells in S to G(2)-M, whereas SKBR3 cells showed an increase in the G(0)-G(1) phase. Rapamycin increased the sensitivity to doxorubicin in HER-2-overexpressing cells by approximately 2-fold, suggesting that the combination displayed a more effective antiproliferative action. Gene expression profiling showed that these results might reflect alterations in genes involved in canonical pathways related to purine metabolism, oxidative phosphorylation, protein ubiquitination, and mitochondrial dysfunction. A set of 122 genes modulated by the combined treatment and specifically related to HER-2 overexpression was determined by finding genes commonly regulated in both C5.2 and SKBR3 that were not affected in HB4a cells. Network analysis of this particular set showed a smaller subgroup of genes in which coexpression pattern in HB4a cells was disrupted in C5.2 and SKBR3. Altogether, our data showed a subset of genes that might be more robust than individual markers in predicting the response of HER-2-overexpressing breast cancers to doxorubicin and rapamycin combination. Mol Cancer Ther; 11(2); 464-74. (C) 2011 AACR.

Leptin signaling in Kiss1 neurons arises after pubertal development

The adipocyte-derived hormone leptin is required for normal pubertal maturation in mice and humans and, therefore, leptin has been recognized as a crucial metabolic cue linking energy stores and the onset of puberty. Several lines of evidence have suggested that leptin acts via kisspeptin expressing neurons of the arcuate nucleus to exert its effects. Using conditional knockout mice, we have previously demonstrated that deletion of leptin receptors (LepR) from kisspeptin cells cause no puberty or fertility deficits. However, developmental adaptations and system redundancies may have obscured the physiologic relevance of direct leptin signaling in kisspeptin neurons. To overcome these putative effects, we re-expressed endogenous LepR selectively in kisspeptin cells of mice otherwise null for LepR, using the Cre-loxP system. Kiss1-Cre LepR null mice showed no pubertal development and no improvement of the metabolic phenotype, remaining obese, diabetic and infertile. These mice displayed decreased numbers of neurons expressing Kiss1 gene, similar to prepubertal control mice, and an unexpected lack of re-expression of functional LepR. To further assess the temporal coexpression of Kiss1 and Lepr genes, we generated mice with the human renilla green fluorescent protein (hrGFP) driven by Kiss1 regulatory elements and crossed them with mice that express Cre recombinase from the Lepr locus and the R26-tdTomato reporter gene. No coexpression of Kiss1 and LepR was observed in prepubertal mice. Our findings unequivocally demonstrate that kisspeptin neurons are not the direct target of leptin in the onset of puberty. Leptin signaling in kisspeptin neurons arises only after completion of sexual maturation.

Molekulare Evolution der Intermediärfilament-Proteine des Flussneunauges Lampetra fluviatilis

Über cDNA-Banken und RT-PCR wurden erstmals 15 Intermediärfilament-Proteine (IF-Proteine) des Flussneunauges Lampetra fluviatilis (Agnatha, kieferlose Wirbeltiere) kloniert und sequenziert: drei Typ I-Keratine, vier Typ II-Keratine, fünf keratinartige IF-Proteine (drei Kγ, zwei Kα), die Typ III-Proteine Vimentin und Desmin sowie ein Typ IV-Neurofilament-Protein (NF).Die IF-Proteine wurden aus verschiedenen Organen isoliert und durch zweidimensionale Polyacrylamid-Gelelektrophorese (2D-PAGE) aufgetrennt. Biochemische sowie massenspektrometrische Analysen anhand der 2D-PAGE ermöglichten in Kombination mit den Sequenzdaten die Identifizierung von Vimentin, Desmin sowie aller sequenzierten Keratine bis auf zwei der fünf Kα/Kγ-Proteine. Die meisten Keratine ließen sich darüber hinaus in die Kategorien „E“ (von „epidermal“) und „S“ (von „simple epithelial“) einteilen.Von den sequenzierten Keratinen ist das IIS-Keratin K8 wahrscheinlich ortholog zu den bekannten K8-Sequenzen höherer Vertebraten. Die Bezeichnung K18 für das einzige IS-Keratin des Neunauges in Anlehnung an das IS-Keratin K18 des Menschen basiert auf der stets beobachteten Koexpression mit K8 in einfachen Epithelien.Die Sequenz des Neunaugen-Vimentins zeigt große Übereinstimmungen mit den bekannten Desminsequenzen der Vertebraten. Die keratinartigen Proteine Kα und Kγ sind bis jetzt nur von Agnathen (Neunaugen und Schleimaale) bekannt.In molekularen Stammbäumen können K8, K18, Vimentin, Desmin und das NF_L des Neunauges gut als Außengruppe definiert werden.

Zur Evolution des Cytoskeletts beim Sibirischen Stör Acipenser baeri

Im Rahmen meiner Arbeit wurden erstmals die Intermediärfilament-Proteine (IF-Proteine) des Sibirischen Störs Acipenser baeri (Strahlenflosser, Knorpelganoid) kloniert und sequenziert. Aus einer cDNA-Bank konnten die Sequenzen von 13 IF-Proteine gewonnen werden. Von insgesamt zehn Keratinen codieren sieben für Typ I-Keratine und drei für Typ II. Zusätzlich konnten noch Desmin, Vimentin und ein Lamin identifiziert werden. Je einem Typ I- (K13) und einem Typ-II-Keratin (K2) fehlen wenige Aminosäuren in der Head-Domäne.Cytoskelett-Präparationen aus Epidermis, Mitteldarm, Magen und Kieme wurden mittels 2D-PAGE aufgetrennt. Durch Einsatz des CKBB-Test und Immunoblots wurden die verschiedenen Typ I und II-Keratine sowie Desmin und Vimentin identifiziert. Die gewebsspezifische Expression der Keratine ermöglichte zumeist ihre Einteilung in 'E' (epidermal) und 'S' ('simple epithelial').Die MALDI-MS-Analyse einer 2D-PAGE-Koelektrophorese von Seitenflosse und Mitteldarm zeigte, daß die 34 vorhandenen Proteinflecke auf nur 13 verschiedene IF-Proteine zurückgehen. Neun dieser Flecke konnten Sequenzen zugewiesen werden. Zusammen mit den verbleibenden vier Proteinflecken ergeben sich für den Stör nunmehr insgesamt 17 bekannte IF-Proteine. Von drei biochemisch identifizierten IS-Keratinen kommt eines nur im Mitteldarm vor und nur einem konnte eine Sequenz zugeordnet werden (K18). Dem einzigen Typ IIS-Keratin konnte keine Sequenz zugeordnet werden, wahrscheinlich handelt es sich um dabei um das K8-Orthologe. Jedem der fünf Typ IE-Proteine konnte eine Sequenz zugeordnet werden (K10 bis K14), ebenso wie dem einzigen identifizierten Typ IIE-Keratin (K2). Von den Typ III-Proteinen wurden Desmin und Vimentin ihren Proteinflecken zugeordnet. Die nicht zugeordnete Sequenz aba-k1 codiert möglicherweise für ein IIE-Keratin, während aba-k15 vermutlich die Sequenz für ein IE-Keratin enthält. Bei den Proteinflecken, denen eine Sequenz zugeordnet werden konnten, kann für Aba-K2 die Zugehörigkeit zum IIE-Typ angenommen werden, während es sich bei Aba-K10 wahrscheinlich um ein IE-Keratin handelt.Durch Datenbankvergleiche und molekulare Stammbäume konnte die Zugehörigkeit der identifizierten Lamin-Sequenz zum B3-Subtyp der Vertebraten gezeigt werden.Die Daten der Biochemie und indirekten Immunfluoreszenzmikroskopie zeigen, daß Keratine in Epithelien und Vimentin in mesenchymalen Geweben vorkommen. Es existieren starke Hinweise, daß im letzten Gewebetyp Keratine auch koexprimiert werden. Desmin kommt in großen Mengen im Magen und im Mitteldarm vor und stellt dort das prominenteste Protein.Mit den gewonnenen Sequenzdaten wurden molekulare Stammbäume und Sequenzidentitäten berechnet. Die daraus resultierenden Konsequenzen für die Verwandtschaftsverhältnisse der verschiedenen IF-Proteine sowie der Wirbeltiere werden diskutiert.

Recombinant expression of molluscan hemocyanin (KLH) substructures in a prokaryotic system: E. coli

The recombinant expression of 19 different substructures of KLH in the prokaryotic sys-tem E. coli has been successfully achieved: each one of the eight single FUs a to h of both isoforms, KLH1 and KLH2, two substructures consisting of two consecutive FUs (KLH1-bc and KLH1-gh) as well as a cDNA encompassing KLH1-abc. All recombinant proteins, fused to an N-terminal 6xHis tag, have successfully been detected by immuno precipitation using monoclonal α-His-antibodies and polyclonal α-KLH1- and α-KLH2-antibodies. One exception remained: SP-KLH2-a, which was not detected by the α-His-antibodies. This allows speculations as to whether the coexpressed signal peptide can lead, at one hand, to the secretion of the recombinant protein, and on the other to the simultaneous cut-off of the leader peptide, which results in the splitting off of even more N-terminal 6xHis tag, leading to failed recognition by the appropriate antibodies. The comparison of native KLH with recombinantly expressed prokaryotic (E. coli) and eukaryotic (Sf9 insect cells) KLH was done using FU-1h. The weak detection by the polyclonal α-KLH1-antibodies of both recombinantly expressed proteins showed that the native protein was the best recognized. For the prokaryotic one, both the denaturation applied for solubilisation of the bacterial inclusion bodies and the inability of bacterial cells to add N-linked glycosylation, are the reason for the poor hybridization. In contrast, KLH1-h expressed in eukaryotic insect cells is likely to be glycosylated. The incubation with the α-KLH1-antibodies resulting in the same weak detection, however, revealed that the linked carbohydrate side chains are not those expected. The establishment of SOE-PCR, together with further improvement, has enabled the generation of a clone encompassing the complete subunit KLH1-abcdefgh. The se-quence analysis compared to the original KLH1 sequence showed, however, that the resulting recombinant protein is defective in two histidines, required for the copper bind-ing sites in FU-1b and FU-1d and in three disulfide bridges (FU-1a, FU-1b and FU 1g). This is due to polymerase-related nucleotide exchanges, resulting in a changed amino acid sequence. Nevertheless, all eight potential N-glycosylation sites are present, leading to the speculation that the recombinant protein can in theory be fully glycosylated, which is the most important aspect for the clinical applicability of recombinant KLH as an im-munotherapeutic agent. The improvement of this method elaborated during the present work indicates bright prospects for the future generation of a correct cDNA sequence encoding for the complete KLH2 subunit.

Differential cell type-specific transcriptional regulation of the CYP1A1 gene

Cytochrome P450 1A1 (CYP1A1) monooxygenase plays an important role in the metabolism of environmental pollutants such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and halogenated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (HAHs). Oxidation of these compounds converts them to the metabolites that subsequently can be conjugated to hydrophilic endogenous entities e.g. glutathione. Derivates generated in this way are water soluble and can be excreted in bile or urine, which is a defense mechanism. Besides detoxification, metabolism by CYP1A1 may lead to deleterious effects since the highly reactive intermediate metabolites are able to react with DNA and thus cause mutagenic effects, as it is in the case of benzo(a) pyrene (B[a]P). CYP1A1 is normally not expressed or expressed at a very low level in the cells but it is inducible by many PAHs and HAHs e.g. by B[a]P or 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD). Transcriptional activation of the CYP1A1 gene is mediated by aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR), a basic-helix-loop-helix (bHLH) transcription factor. In the absence of a ligand AHR stays predominantly in the cytoplasm. Ligand binding causes translocation of AHR to the nuclear compartment, its heterodimerization with another bHLH protein, the aryl hydrocarbon nuclear translocator (ARNT) and binding of the AHR/ARNT heterodimer to a DNA motif designated dioxin responsive element (DRE). This process leads to the transcriptional activation of the responsive genes containing DREs in their regulatory regions, e.g. that coding for CYP1A1. TCDD is the most potent known agonist of AHR. Since it is not metabolized by the activated enzymes, exposure to this compound leads to a persisting activation of AHR resulting in diverse toxic effects in the organism. To enlighten the molecular mechanisms that mediate the toxicity of xenobiotics like TCDD and related compounds, the AHR-dependent regulation of the CYP1A1 gene was investigated in two cell lines: human cervix carcinoma (HeLa) and mouse hepatoma (Hepa). Study of AHR activation and its consequence concerning expression of the CYP1A1 enzyme confirmed the TCDD-dependent formation of the AHR/ARNT complex on DRE leading to an increase of the CYP1A1 transcription in Hepa cells. In contrast, in HeLa cells formation of the AHR/ARNT heterodimer and binding of a protein complex containing AHR and ARNT to DRE occurred naturally in the absence of TCDD. Moreover, treatment with TCDD did not affect the AHR/ARNT dimer formation and binding of these proteins to DRE in these cells. Even though the constitutive complex on DRE exists in HeLa, transcription of the CYP1A1 gene was not increased. Furthermore, the CYP1A1 level in HeLa cells remained unchanged in the presence of TCDD suggesting repressional mechanism of the AHR complex function which may hinder the TCDD-dependent mechanisms in these cells. Similar to the native, the mouse CYP1A1-driven reporter constructs containing different regulatory elements were not inducible by TCDD in HeLa cells, which supported a presence of cell type specific trans-acting factor in HeLa cells able to repress both the native CYP1A1 and CYP1A1-driven reporter genes rather than species specific differences between CYP1A1 genes of human and rodent origin. The different regulation of the AHR-mediated transcription of CYP1A1 gene in Hepa and HeLa cells was further explored in order to elucidate two aspects of the AHR function: (I) mechanism involved in the activation of AHR in the absence of exogenous ligand and (II) factor that repress function of the exogenous ligand-independent AHR/ARNT complex. Since preliminary studies revealed that the activation of PKA causes an activation of AHR in Hepa cells in the absence of TCDD, the PKA-dependent signalling pathway was the proposed endogenous mechanism leading to the TCDD-independent activation of AHR in HeLa cells. Activation of PKA by forskolin or db-cAMP as well as inhibition of the kinase by H89 in both HeLa and Hepa cells did not lead to alterations in the AHR interaction with ARNT in the absence of TCDD and had no effect on binding of these proteins to DRE. Moreover, the modulators of PKA did not influence the CYP1A1 activity in these cells in the presence and in the absence of TCDD. Thus, an involvement of PKA in the regulation of the CYP1A1 Gen in HeLa cells was not evaluated in the course of this study. Repression of genes by transcription factors bound to their responsive elements in the absence of ligands has been described for nuclear receptors. These receptors interact with protein complex containing histone deacetylase (HDAC), enzyme responsible for the repressional effect. Thus, a participation of histone deacetylase in the transcriptional modulation of CYP1A1 gene by the constitutively DNA-bound AHR/ARNT complex was supposed. Inhibition of the HDAC activity by trichostatin A (TSA) or sodium butyrate (NaBu) led to an increase of the CYP1A1 transcription in the presence but not in the absence of TCDD in Hepa and HeLa cells. Since amount of the AHR and ARNT proteins remained unchanged upon treatment of the cells with TSA or NaBu, the transcriptional upregulation of CYP1A1 gene was not due to an increased expression of the regulatory proteins. These findings strongly suggest an involvement of HDAC in the repression of the CYP1A1 gene. Similar to the native human CYP1A1 also the mouse CYP1A1-driven reporter gene transfected into HeLa cells was repressed by histone deacetylase since the presence of TSA or NaBu led to an increase in the reporter activity. Induction of reporter gene did not require a presence of the promoter or negative regulatory regions of the CYP1A1 gene. A promoter-distal fragment containing three DREs together with surrounding sequences was sufficient to mediate the effects of the HDAC inhibitors suggesting that the AHR/ARNT binding to its specific DNA recognition site may be important for the CYP1A1 repression. Histone deacetylase is recruited to the specific genes by corepressors, proteins that bind to the transcription factors and interact with other members of the HDAC complex. Western blot analyses revealed a presence of HDAC1 and the corepressors mSin3A (mammalian homolog of yeast Sin3) and SMRT (silencing mediator for retinoid and thyroid hormone receptor) in both cell types, while the corepressor NCoR (nuclear receptor corepressor) was expressed exclusively in HeLa cells. Thus the high inducibility of CYP1A1 in Hepa cells may be due to the absence of NCoR in these cells in contrast to the non-responsive HeLa cells, where the presence of NCoR would support repression of the gene by histone deacetylase. This hypothesis was verified in reporter gene experiments where expression constructs coding for the particular members of the HDAC complex were cotransfected in Hepa cells together with the TCDD-inducible reporter constructs containing the CYP1A1 regulatory sequences. An overexpression of NCoR however did not decrease but instead led to a slight increase of the reporter gene activity in the cells. The expected inhibition was observed solely in the case of SMRT that slightly reduced constitutive and TCDD-induced reporter gene activity. A simultaneous expression of NCoR and SMRT shown no further effects and coexpression of HDAC1 with the two corepressors did not alter this situation. Thus, additional factors that are likely involved in the repression of CYP1A1 gene by HDAC complex remained to be identified. Taking together, characterisation of an exogenous ligand independent AHR/ARNT complex on DRE in HeLa cells that repress transcription of the CYP1A1 gene creates a model system enabling investigation of endogenous processes involved in the regulation of AHR function. This study implicates HDAC-mediated repression of CYP1A1 gene that contributes to the xenobiotic-induced expression in a tissue specific manner. Elucidation of these processes gains an insight into mechanisms leading to deleterious effects of TCDD and related compounds.

Die Leber als Latenzort des murinen Cytomegalovirus: Identifizierung und Charakterisierung des latent infizierten Zelltyps

Die Untersuchungen der murinen Cytomegalovirus (mCMV) Infektion im BALB/c Mausmodell konzentrierten sich bislang auf die Lunge, da diese einen Hauptort der mCMV Latenz darstellt. Da latentes CMV auch häufig durch Lebertransplantationen übertragen wird, wurde in dieser Arbeit die Leber als ein weiteres medizinisch relevantes Organ der CMV Latenz und Reaktivierung untersucht. Um zunächst die zellulären Orte der mCMV Latenz in der Leber zu ermitteln, wurden verschiedengeschlechtliche Knochenmarktransplantationen (KMT) mit männlichen tdy-positiven Spendern und weiblichen, tdy-negativen Empfängern, mit anschließender mCMV Infektion durchgeführt, um latent infizierte Mäuse mit geschlechtschromosomalem Chimärismus zu generieren. Diese Chimären erlaubten eine Unterscheidung zwischen tdy-positiven Zellen hämatopoetischen Ursprungs und tdy-negativen stromalen und parenchymalen Gewebszellen. Die Separation von Leberzellen der Chimären mittels zentrifugaler Elutriation und anschließender DNA Quantifizierung viraler und zellulärer Genome durch eine quantitative real-time PCR ergab einen ersten Hinweis, dass Endothelzellen ein zellulärer Ort der mCMV Latenz sind. Die darauf folgende immunomagnetische Zelltrennung lokalisierte latente virale DNA in der CD31-positiven Zellfraktion. Die Koexpression von CD31 mit dem endothelzellspezifischen Oberflächenmarker ME-9F1 identifizierte die sinusoidalen Endothelzellen der Leber (LSEC) als die Zellen, die latente virale DNA beherbergen. In den zytofluorometrisch aufgereinigten CD31+/ME-9F1+ LSEC waren bei gleichzeitigem Rückgang der männlichen tdy Markergene virale Genome angereichert, was darauf hinwies, dass Zellen, die virale DNA enthalten, vom Knochenmark-Empfänger stammen. Durch zytofluorometrische Analysen isolierter LSEC konnte eine vom Spender abstammende Subpopulation MHCII+/CD11b+ LSEC identifiziert werden. Anschließende Quantifizierungen viraler DNA aus latent infizierten Mäusen detektierten eine Abnahme viraler Genome mit zunehmender Menge an tdy-positiven Zellen, was beweist, dass MHCII+/CD11b+ LSEC keinen Ort der mCMV Latenz darstellen. Die limiting dilution Untersuchungen der isolierten latent infizierten LSEC ergaben eine Frequenz von einer latent infizierten Zelle unter ~1,9x104 LSEC und eine Anzahl von 7 bis 19 viralen Genomen pro latent infizierter Zelle. Nach 24 Stunden Kultivierung der LSEC konnte mittels quantitativer real-time RT-PCR mit Gesamt-RNA aus LSEC ein Anstieg der Genexpression der immediate early Gene ie1 und ie3 sowie eine Induktion des early Gens e1 gezeigt werden. Eine Erhöhung der transkriptionellen Reaktivierung durch die Inkubation der LSEC mit unterschiedlichen HDAC Inhibitoren konnte allerdings nicht erzielt werden, da sowohl die Menge der isolierten RNA aus behandelten Kulturen, als auch die Anzahl viraler Transkripte im Vergleich zu den unbehandelten Kulturen erniedrigt war. Aufgrund der kurzen Lebensdauer isolierter LSEC in vitro konnte durch Kokultivierungen latent infizierter LSEC zusammen mit murinen embryonalen Fibroblasten keine Virusreaktivierung induziert werden. Im Gegensatz dazu wurden durch den Transfer gereinigter ME-9F1+/CD31+ LSEC aus latent infizierten Spendern in immunsupprimierte Empfänger virale Rekurrenzen in Lungenexplantatkulturen des Rezipienten detektiert. Damit konnten LSEC eindeutig als zellulärer Ort von mCMV Latenz und Reaktivierung in der Leber identifiziert werden.

Expression profiling und rationale Expressionsoptimierung am Beispiel eines prokaryontischen Wirt-,Vektor-Systems

Durch globale Expressionsprofil-Analysen auf Transkriptom-, Proteom- oder Metabolom-Ebene können biotechnologische Produktionsprozesse besser verstanden und die Erkenntnisse für die zielgerichtete, rationale Optimierung von Expressionssystemen genutzt werden. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde die Überexpression einer Glukose-Dehydrogenase (EC 1.1.5.2), die von der Roche Diagnostics GmbH für die diagnostische Anwendung optimiert worden war, in Escherichia coli untersucht. Die Enzymvariante unterscheidet sich in sieben ihrer 455 Aminosäuren vom Wildtyp-Enzym und wird im sonst isogenen Wirt-/Vektor-System in signifikant geringeren Mengen (Faktor 5) gebildet. Das prokaryontische Expressionssystem wurde auf Proteom-Ebene charakterisiert. Die 2-dimensionale differenzielle Gelelektrophorese (DIGE) wurde zuvor unter statistischen Aspekten untersucht. Unter Berücksichtigung von technischen und biologischen Variationen, falsch-positiven (α-) und falsch-negativen (β-) Fehlern sowie einem daraus abgeleiteten Versuchsdesign konnten Expressionsunterschiede als signifikant quantifiziert werden, wenn sie um den Faktor ≥ 1,4 differierten. Durch eine Hauptkomponenten-Analyse wurde gezeigt, dass die DIGE-Technologie für die Expressionsprofil-Analyse des Modellsystems geeignet ist. Der Expressionsstamm für die Enzymvariante zeichnete sich durch eine höhere Variabilität an Enzymen für den Zuckerabbau und die Nukleinsäure-Synthese aus. Im Expressionssystem für das Wildtyp-Enzym wurde eine unerwartet erhöhte Plasmidkopienzahl nachgewiesen. Als potenzieller Engpass in der Expression der rekombinanten Glukose-Dehydrogenase wurde die Löslichkeitsvermittlung identifiziert. Im Expressionsstamm für das Wildtyp-Enzym wurden viele Proteine für die Biogenese der äußeren Membran verstärkt exprimiert. Als Folge dessen wurde ein sog. envelope stress ausgelöst und die Zellen gingen in die stationäre Wuchsphase über. Die Ergebnisse der Proteomanalyse wurden weiterführend dazu genutzt, die Produktionsleistung für die Enzymvariante zu verbessern. Durch den Austausch des Replikationsursprungs im Expressionsvektor wurde die Plasmidkopienzahl erhöht und die zelluläre Expressionsleistung für die diagnostisch interessantere Enzymvariante um Faktor 7 - 9 gesteigert. Um die Löslichkeitsvermittlung während der Expression zu verbessern, wurde die Plasmidkopienzahl gesenkt und die Coexpression von Chaperonen initiiert. Die Ausbeuten aktiver Glukose-Dehydrogenase wurden durch die Renaturierung inaktiven Produkts aus dem optimierten Expressionssystem insgesamt um einen Faktor von 4,5 erhöht. Somit führte im Rahmen dieser Arbeit eine proteombasierte Expressionsprofil-Analyse zur zielgerichteten, rationalen Expressionsoptimierung eines prokaryontischen Modellsystems.

Einfluss moderater intraischämischer Hypothermie auf die Proliferation und Differenzierung neuronaler Stammzellen 28 Tage nach inkompletter Vorderhirnischämie und Reperfusion der adulten Ratte

Hypothermie schützt Neurone vor hypoxischen, ischämischen und traumatischen Schädigungen. Bisher ist jedoch unklar, ob Hypothermie auch endogene Reparaturmechanismen beeinflusst. Die vorliegende Arbeit untersucht daher den Einfluss intraischämischer Hypothermie auf das neuroregenerative Potential des Gehirns nach zerebraler Ischämie.rn50 männliche Sprague-Dawley Ratten wurden hierzu anästhesiert, intubiert und in folgende Versuchsgruppen randomisiert: Normotherme Ischämie (Normo/BACO), intraischämische Hypothermie (Hypo/BACO) sowie korrespondierende scheinoperierte Kontrollgruppen (Normo/Sham und Hypo/Sham). In den Gruppen Normo/Sham und Normo/BACO wurde die perikranielle Temperatur konstant bei 37 °C gehalten während sie in den Gruppen Hypo/Sham und Hypo/BACO für 85 min auf 33 °C gesenkt wurde. Durch bilaterale Okklusion der Aa. carotides communes in Kombination mit hämorrhagischer Hypotension wurde in BACO-Tieren eine 14-minütige inkomplette globale zerebrale Ischämie induziert. Tiere der Kontroll-Gruppen (Sham) blieben ohne Induktion einer Ischämie in Narkose. 15 weitere Tiere durchliefen nicht den operativen Versuchsteil und bildeten die Nativ-Gruppe, die als Referenz für die natürliche Neurogenese diente. Zur in-vivo-Markierung der Stammzellen wurde vom ersten bis siebten postoperativen Tag Bromodeoxyurindine (BrdU) injiziert. Nach 28 Tagen wurden die Gehirne entnommen. Die Analyse des histopathologischen Schadens erfolgte anhand HE-gefärbter Hirnschnitte, die Quantifikation der absoluten Anzahl neu gebildeter Zellen im Gyrus dentatus erfolgte mittels BrdU-Färbung. Anhand einer BrdU/NeuN-Immunfluoreszenz-Doppelfärbung konnte der Anteil neu generierter Neurone bestimmt werden.rnNach zerebraler Ischämie zeigten Tiere mit Normothermie eine Schädigung der CA 1-Region von über 50 % während hypotherme Ischämietiere einen Schaden von weniger als 10 % aufwiesen. Tiere ohne Ischämie (Hypo/Sham, Normo/Sham, Nativ) zeigten keinen histopathologischen Schaden. Die Anzahl neu gebildeter Neurone im Gyrus dentatus lag für normotherme Ischämietiere (Normo/BACO) bei 18819 und für Tiere mit intraischämischer Hypothermie (Hypo/BACO) bei 15175 neuen Neuronen. In den Kontroll-Gruppen wiesen Tiere der Gruppe Normo/Sham 5501, Tiere der Gruppe Hypo/Sham 4600 und Tiere der Nativ-Gruppe 5974 neu generierte Neurone auf.rnDiese Daten bestätigen frühere Studien, die eine Reduktion des neuronalen Schadens durch intraischämische Hypothermie zeigten. Infolge des ischämischen Stimulus kam es im Vergleich zu beiden Kontroll- und der Nativ-Gruppe zu einem signifikanten Anstieg der Anzahl neuer Neurone in beiden Ischämiegruppen unabhängig von der Temperatur. Somit scheint das Ausmaß der histopathologischen Schädigung keinen Einfluss auf die Anzahl neu gebildeter Neurone zu haben. Darüber hinaus beeinflusste die therapeutische Hypothermie auch nicht die natürliche Neurogeneserate. Die erhobenen Daten lassen vermuten, dass Hypothermie keinen Effekt auf die Anzahl und Differenzierung neuronaler Stammzellen aufweist, unabhängig davon, ob eine zerebrale Schädigung vorliegt.