The transcription factor IFN regulatory factor-4 controls experimental colitis in mice via T cell-derived IL-6

The proinflammatory cytokine IL-6 seems to have an important role in the intestinal inflammation that characterizes inflammatory bowel diseases (IBDs) such as Crohn disease and ulcerative colitis. However, little is known about the molecular mechanisms regulating IL-6 production in IBD. Here, we assessed the role of the transcriptional regulator IFN regulatory factor-4 (IRF4) in this process. Patients with either Crohn disease or ulcerative colitis exhibited increased IRF4 expression in lamina propria CD3+ T cells as compared with control patients. Consistent with IRF4 having a regulatory function in T cells, in a mouse model of IBD whereby colitis is induced in RAG-deficient mice by transplantation with CD4+CD45RB(hi) T cells, adoptive transfer of wild-type but not IRF4-deficient T cells resulted in severe colitis. Furthermore, IRF4-deficient mice were protected from T cell-dependent chronic intestinal inflammation in trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid- and oxazolone-induced colitis. In addition, IRF4-deficient mice with induced colitis had reduced mucosal IL-6 production, and IRF4 was required for IL-6 production by mucosal CD90+ T cells, which it protected from apoptosis. Finally, the protective effect of IRF4 deficiency could be abrogated by systemic administration of either recombinant IL-6 or a combination of soluble IL-6 receptor (sIL-6R) plus IL-6 (hyper-IL-6). Taken together, our data identify IRF4 as a key regulator of mucosal IL-6 production in T cell-dependent experimental colitis and suggest that IRF4 might provide a therapeutic target for IBDs.

Novel NOD2 haplotype strengthens the association between TLR4 Asp299gly and Crohnʼs disease in an Australian population

Background:: The first major Crohn's disease (CD) susceptibility gene, NOD2, implicates the innate intestinal immune system and other pattern recognition receptors in the pathogenesis of this chronic, debilitating disorder. These include the Toll‐like receptors, specifically TLR4 and TLR5. A variant in the TLR4 gene (A299G) has demonstrated variable association with CD. We aimed to investigate the relationship between TLR4 A299G and TLR5 N392ST, and an Australian inflammatory bowel disease cohort, and to explore the strength of association between TLR4 A299G and CD using global meta‐analysis. Methods:: Cases (CD = 619, ulcerative colitis = 300) and controls (n = 360) were genotyped for TLR4 A299G, TLR5 N392ST, and the 4 major NOD2 mutations. Data were interrogated for case‐control analysis prior to and after stratification by NOD2 genotype. Genotype–phenotype relationships were also sought. Meta‐analysis was conducted via RevMan. Results:: The TLR4 A299G variant allele showed a significant association with CD compared to controls (P = 0.04) and a novel NOD2 haplotype was identified which strengthened this (P = 0.003). Furthermore, we identified that TLR4 A299G was associated with CD limited to the colon (P = 0.02). In the presence of the novel NOD2 haplotype, TLR4 A299G was more strongly associated with colonic disease (P < 0.001) and nonstricturing disease (P = 0.009). A meta‐analysis of 11 CD cohorts identified a 1.5‐fold increase in risk for the variant TLR4 A299G allele (P < 0.00001). Conclusions:: TLR 4 A299G appears to be a significant risk factor for CD, in particular colonic, nonstricturing disease. Furthermore, we identified a novel NOD2 haplotype that strengthens the relationship between TLR4 A299G and these phenotypes.

The relationship between angiogenesis and the immune response in carcinogenesis and the progression of malignant disease

Recent studies have demonstrated that angiogenesis and suppressed cell- mediated immunity (CMI) play a central role in the pathogenesis of malignant disease facilitating tumour growth, invasion and metastasis. In the majority of tumours, the malignant process is preceded by a pathological condition or exposure to an irritant which itself is associated with the induction of angiogenesis and/or suppressed CMI. These include: cigarette smoking, chronic bronchitis and lung cancer; chronic oesophagitis and oesophageal cancer; chronic viral infections such as human papilloma virus and ano-genital cancers, chronic hepatitis B and C and hepatocellular carcinoma, and Epstein- Barr virus (EBV) and lymphomas; chronic inflammatory conditions such as Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis and colorectal cancer; asbestos exposure and mesothelioma and excessive sunlight exposure/sunburn and malignant melanoma. Chronic exposure to growth factors (insulin-like growth factor-I in acromegaly), mutations in tumour suppressor genes (TP53 in Li Fraumeni syndrome) and long-term exposure to immunosuppressive agents (cyclosporin A) may also give rise to similar environments and are associated with the development of a range of solid tumours. The increased blood supply would facilitate the development and proliferation of an abnormal clone or clones of cells arising as the result of: (a) an inherited genetic abnormality; and/or (b) acquired somatic mutations, the latter due to local production and/or enhanced delivery of carcinogens and mutagenic growth factors. With progressive detrimental mutations and growth-induced tumour hypoxia, the transformed cell, to a lesser or greater extent, may amplify the angiogenic process and CMI suppression, thereby facilitating further tumour growth and metastasis. There is accumulating evidence that long-term treatment with cyclo-oxygenase inhibitors (aspirin and indomethacin), cytokines such as interferon-α, anti-oestrogens (tamoxifen and raloxifene) and captopril significantly reduces the incidence of solid tumours such as breast and colorectal cancer. These agents are anti-angiogenic and, in the case of aspirin, indomethacin and interferon-α have proven immunomodulatory effects. Collectively these observations indicate that angiogenesis and suppressed CMI play a central role in the development and progression of malignant disease. (C) 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd.

Genetic Variation and Clinical Manifestations in Inflammatory Bowel Disease

Crohn s disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC), collectively known as inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), are characterised by chronic inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract. IBD prevalence in Finland is approximately 3-4 per 1000 inhabitants with a peak incidence in adolescence. The symptoms of IBD include diarrhoea, abdominal pain, fever, and weight loss. The precise aetiology of IBD is unknown but interplay of environmental risk factors and immunologic changes trigger the disease in a genetically susceptible individual. Twin and family studies have provided strong evidence for genetic factors in IBD susceptibility, and genetic factors may be more prominent in CD than UC. The first CD susceptibility gene was identified in 2001. Three common mutations R702W, G908R, and 1007fs of the CARD15/NOD2 gene are shown to associate independently with CD but the magnitude of association varies between different populations. The present study aimed at identifying mutations and genetic variations in IBD susceptibility and candidate genes. In addition, correlation to phenotype was also assessed. One of the main objectives of this study was to evaluate the role of CARD15 in a Finnish CD cohort. 271 CD patients were studied for the three common mutations and the results showed a lower mutation frequency than in other Caucasian populations. Only 16% of the patients carried one of the three mutations. Ileal location as well as stricturing and penetrating behaviour of the disease were associated with occurrence of the mutations. The whole protein coding region of CARD15 was screened for possible Finnish founder mutations. In addition to several sequence variants, five novel mutations (R38M, W355X, P727L, W907R, and R1019X) were identified in five patients. Functional consequences of these novel variants were studied in vitro, and these studies demonstrated a profound impairment of MDP response. Investigation of CARD15 mutation frequency in healthy people across three continents showed a large geographic fluctuation. No simple correlation between mutation frequency and disease incidence was seen in populations studied. The occurrence of double mutant carriers in healthy controls suggested that the penetrance of risk alleles is low. Other main objectives aimed at identifying other genetic variations that are involved in the susceptibility to IBD. We investigated the most plausible IBD candidate genes including TRAF6, SLC22A4, SLC22A5, DLG5, TLR4, TNFRSF1A, ABCB1/MDR1, IL23R, and ATG16L1. The marker for a chromosome 5 risk haplotype and the rare HLA-DRB1*0103 allele were also studied. The study cohort consisted of 699 IBD patients (240 CD and 459 UC), of which 23% had a first-degree relative with IBD. Of the several candidate genes studied, IL23R was associated with CD susceptibility, and TNFRSF1A as well as the HLA-DRB1*0103 allele with UC susceptibility. IL23R variants also showed association with the stricturing phenotype and longer disease duration in CD patients. In addition, TNFRSF1A variants were more common among familial UC and ileocolonic CD. In conclusion, the common CARD15 mutations were shown to account for 16% of CD cases in Finland. Novel CARD15 variants identified in the present study are most likely disease-causing mutations, as judged by the results of in vitro studies. The present study also confirms the IL23R association with CD susceptibility and, in addition, TNFRSF1A and HLA-DRB1*0103 allele association with UC of specific clinical phenotypes.

Níveis elevados de IL-6 no fluido gengival de pacientes com periodontite crônica e retrocolite ulcerativa idiopática

O nosso objetivo foi mensurar os níveis de Interleucina-6 (IL-6) no fluido gengival de pacientes com periodontite e doença inflamatória intestinal (DII), comparando-os com pacientes sistemicamente saudáveis, com periodontite. Como objetivo secundário será avaliada a IL-6 no soro desses pacientes. Foram selecionados 15 pacientes com doença de Crohn (DC, idade média 38.2, DP 11.4 anos), 15 com retrocolite ulcerativa idiopática (RCUI, 45.0 10.5 anos) e 15 pacientes saudáveis (C, 42.1 7.8 anos). A Profundidade de bolsa (PB), nível de inserção clínica (NI), presença de placa e de sangramento a sondagem foram avaliados em seis sítios por dente. O fluido gengival foi coletado de quatro sítios com periodontite (PP: PB ≥ 5mm, NI ≥ 3mm) e quatro sítios com gengivite (GP: PB ≤ 3mm e NI≤ 1mm), em dentes diferentes, com pontas de papel absorvente pré-fabricadas. O soro destes pacientes também foi coletado. A análise da IL-6 foi realizada pelo LUMINEX. A quantidade total e concentração da IL-6 estavam significantemente maiores no fluido gengival dos sítios PP do grupo RCUI quando comparados aos sítios PP do grupo controle (p=0.028; p=0.044, respectivamente). O grupo DC apresentou a quantidade total de IL-6 significantemente maior no sítio PP do que no GP (p=0.028). Já no soro, a IL-6 não diferiu entre os grupos. Sendo assim, pode-se concluir que os indivíduos com retrocolite ulcerativa idiopática apresentavam níveis mais altos de IL-6 nos sítios com periodontite, o que pode indicar um importante papel dessa citocina no estabelecimento e progressão da doença periodontal nesses pacientes.

Doença de Crohn

Projeto de Pós-Graduação/Dissertação apresentado à Universidade Fernando Pessoa como parte dos requisitos para obtenção do grau de Mestre em Ciências Farmacêuticas

Molecular analysis of inflammatory mechanisms associated with Escherichia coli and inflammatory bowel diseases

Inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD), encompasses a range of chronic, immune-mediated inflammatory disorders that are usually classified under two major relapsing conditions, Crohn’s Disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC). Extensive studies in the last decades have suggested that the etiology of IBD involves environmental and genetic factors that lead to dysfunction of epithelial barrier with consequent deregulation of the mucosal immune system and inadequate responses to gut microbiota.Over the last decade, the microbial species that has attracted the most attention, with respect to CD etiology, is Eschericia coli. In CD tissue, E. coli antigens have also been identified in macrophages within the lamina propria, granulomas, and in the germinal centres of mesenteric lymph nodes of patients. They have been shown to adhere to and invade intestinal epithelial cells whilst also being able to extensively replicate within macrophages. Through the work of genome-wide association studies (GWAS), there is growing evidence to suggest that the microbial imbalance between commensal and pathogenic bacteria in the gut is aided by a defect in the innate immune system. Autophagy represents a recently investigated pathway that is believed to contribute to the pathogenesis of CD, with studies identified a variant of the autophagy gene, ATG16L1, as a susceptibility gene. The aim of my thesis was to study the cellular and molecular mechanism promoted by E.coli strains in epithelial cells and to assess their contribution to IBD pathology. To achieve this we focused on developing both an in vitro and in vivo model of AIEC infection. This allowed us to further our knowledge on possible mechanisms utilised by AIEC that promoted their survival, as well as developing a better understanding of host reactions. We demonstrate a new survival mechanism promoted by E.coli HM605, whereby it induces the expression of the anti-apoptotic proteins Bcl-XL and BCL2, all of which is exacerbated in an autophagy deficient system. We have also demonstrated the presence of AIEC-induced inflammasome responses in epithelial cells which are exacerbated in an autophagy deficient system and expression of NOD-like receptors (NLRs) which might mediate inflammasome responses in vivo. Finally, we used the Citrobacter rodentium model of infectious colitis to identify Pellino3 as an important mediator in the NOD2 pathway and regulator of intestinal inflammation. In summary, we have developed robust and versatile models of AIEC infection as well as provide new insights into AIEC mediated survival pathways. The collected data provides a new perception into why AIEC bacteria are able to prosper in conditions associated with Crohn’s disease patients with a defect in autophagy.

The fungal microbiota of de-novo paediatric inflammatory bowel disease

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is characterised by an inappropriate chronic immune response against resident gut microbes. This may be on account of distinct changes in the gut microbiota termed as dysbiosis. The role of fungi in this altered luminal environment has been scarcely reported. We studied the fungal microbiome in de-novo paediatric IBD patients utilising next generation sequencing and compared with adult disease and normal controls. We report a distinct difference in fungal species with Ascomycota predominating in control subjects compared to Basidiomycota dominance in children with IBD, which could be as a result of altered tolerance in these patients. 

Prevalence and clinical importance of mesenteric venous thrombosis in the swiss inflammatory bowel disease cohort.

OBJECTIVE. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the prevalence of mesenteric venous thrombosis (MVT) in the Swiss Inflammatory Bowel Disease Cohort Study and to correlate MVT with clinical outcome. MATERIALS AND METHODS. Abdominal portal phase CT was used to examine patients with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Two experienced abdominal radiologists retrospectively analyzed the images, focusing on the superior and inferior mesenteric vein branches and looking for signs of acute or chronic thrombosis. The location of abnormalities was registered. The presence of MVT was correlated with IBD-related radiologic signs and complications. RESULTS. The cases of 160 patients with IBD (89 women, 71 men; Crohn disease [CD], 121 patients; ulcerative colitis [UC], 39 patients; median age at diagnosis, 27 years for patients with CD, 32 years for patients with UC) were analyzed. MVT was detected in 43 patients with IBD (26.8%). One of these patients had acute MVT; 38, chronic MVT; and four, both. The prevalence of MVT did not differ between CD (35/121 [28.9%]) and UC (8/39 [20.5%]) (p = 0.303). The location of thrombosis was different between CD and UC (CD, jejunal or ileal veins only [p = 0.005]; UC, rectocolic veins only [p = 0.001]). Almost all (41/43) cases of thrombosis were peripheral. MVT in CD patients was more frequently associated with bowel wall thickening (p = 0.013), mesenteric fat hypertrophy (p = 0.005), ascites (p = 0.002), and mesenteric lymph node enlargement (p = 0.036) and was associated with higher rate of bowel stenosis (p < 0.001) and more intestinal IBD-related surgery (p = 0.016) in the outcome. Statistical analyses for patients with UC were not relevant because of the limited population (n = 8). CONCLUSION. MVT is frequently found in patients with IBD. Among patients with CD, MVT is associated with bowel stenosis and CD-related intestinal surgery.

MAST3 : facteur de risque génétique aux maladies inflammatoires de l’intestin et modulateur d’inflammation

La maladie de Crohn (MC) et la colite ulcéreuse (CU) sont des maladies inflammatoires chroniques du tube digestif qu’on regroupe sous le terme maladies inflammatoires de l’intestin (MII). Les mécanismes moléculaires menant au développement des MII ne sont pas entièrement connus, mais des études génétiques et fonctionnelles ont permis de mettre en évidence des interactions entre des prédispositions génétiques et des facteurs environnementaux - notamment la flore intestinale – qui contribuent au développement d’une dérégulation de la réponse immunitaire menant à l’inflammation de la muqueuse intestinale. Des études d’association pangénomiques et ciblées ont permis d’identifier plusieurs gènes de susceptibilité aux MII mais les estimations de la contribution de ces gènes à l’héritabilité suggèrent que plusieurs gènes restent à découvrir. Certains d’entre eux peuvent se trouver dans les régions identifiées par des études de liaison génétique. L’objectif de mon projet de doctorat était d’identifier un ou des facteurs de risque génétique dans la région chromosomale 19p (identifiée comme région de liaison IBD6) et de le/les caractériser au niveau fonctionnel. Nous avons d’abord entrepris une cartographie d’association de la région 19p. À la suite du génotypage successif de deux cohortes indépendantes, nous avons identifié un SNP intronique et quatre SNP codants dont un non-synonyme, rs8108738, tous localisés dans le gène microtubule associated serine threonine kinase gene-3 (MAST3) et associés aux MII. Peu d’information fonctionnelle sur MAST3 était disponible. Par contre MAST2, une protéine encodée par un gène de la même famille, régule l’activité du facteur de transcription inflammatoire NF-kappaB. Nous avons confirmé l’implication de MAST3 dans l’activité de NF-kappaB via un knockdown de MAST3 et des essais gène-rapporteur. Pour poursuivre la caractérisation fonctionnelle de MAST3, nous avons choisi une approche non ciblée pour étudier les effets de la variation des niveaux d’expression de MAST3 sur la cellule. C’est-à-dire que nous avons créé un 1er modèle cellulaire de surexpression du gène MAST3 dans les cellules HEK293 et analysé l’expression pangénomique endogène. La validation de l’expression génique dans un 2e modèle cellulaire de knockdown et de type cellulaire différent (THP1), nous a permis d’identifier et de contrer les effets non-spécifiques dus aux niveaux non-physiologiques. Notre étude d’expression a mené à l’identification d’un groupe de gènes dont l’expression est régulée par MAST3. Ces gènes sont majoritairement impliqués dans des fonctions immunitaires (cytokines pro-inflammatoires, régulateurs de NF-kappaB, migration cellulaire, etc.) et une forte proportion est régulée par NF-kappaB. Nous avons évalué l’importance du groupe de gènes régulés par MAST3 dans la présentation clinique des MII à travers des études d’expression dans des biopsies intestinales de patients atteints de CU. Nous avons constaté que l’expression de ces gènes est significativement supérieure dans les régions enflammées par rapport aux régions saines de la muqueuse intestinale des patients atteints de CU. Globalement, les résultats de nos études suggèrent que le facteur de risque aux MII MAST3 agit via la voie du facteur de transcription NF-kappaB pour influencer l’expression d’un groupe de gènes impliqués dans l’inflammation intestinale typique des MII. Chaque étude génétique sur les MII a le potentiel d’orienter les recherches fonctionnelles vers de nouvelles voies biologiques causales. Le dévoilement des mécanismes moléculaires sous-jacents à ces voies permet d’augmenter les connaissances sur le développement de ces maladies vers une compréhension plus complète de la pathogenèse qui permettra d’optimiser le diagnostic et le traitement de ces maladies.

Le locus 1q32 : susceptibilité aux maladies inflammatoires de l’intestin et rôles biologiques de C1orf106 et KIF21B

La maladie de Crohn (MC) et la colite ulcéreuse (CU) sont des maladies inflammatoires de l’intestin (MII) caractérisées par une inflammation chronique du tube digestif. Ces maladies à traits complexes sont le résultat d’un dérèglement du système immunitaire. Les études d’association pangénomique ont identifié au total 99 loci de susceptibilité aux MII. La région 1q32 du chromosome 1 a été identifiée comme locus de susceptibilité à la MC, la CU et la sclérose en plaque. La région autour du marqueur génétique (rs11584383) contient quatre gènes : Chromosome 1 open reading frame 106 (C1orf106), Kinesin family member 21B (KIF21B), Calcium channel, voltage-dependant, L type, alpha 1S subunit (CACNA1S) et Chromosome 1 open reading frame 81 (C1orf81). L’objectif de l’étude est de mettre ces quatres gènes dans un contexte biologique et de déterminer leur rôle potentiel dans les MII. Par réaction de polymérisation en chaîne quantitatif (qPCR), nous avons déterminé le profil d’expression de ces gènes dans des tissus murins et des lignées cellulaires humaines. KIF21B et C1orf106 sont exprimés dans les tissus gastrointestinal et immunitaire. Par la suite, nous avons testé l’implication de KIF21B et C1orf106 dans les voies biologiques connues pour leur rôle dans les MII comme l’activité NF-kB et le stress du réticulum endoplasmique (RE). Nos résultats montrent que la surexpression de KIF21B dans les cellules HEK293T diminue l’activité de NF-kB et la surexpression de C1orf106 augmente le stress du RE et l’activité de la voie Wnt. Globalement, ces résultats suggèrent que KIF21B et C1orf106, dans la région 1q32, sont des gènes candidats prometteurs puisqu’ils interviennent dans des voies biologiques connues des maladies inflammatoire de l’intestin.

Fibre and effects on probiotics (the prebiotic concept)

The burden (economic and medicinal) of acute and chronic gut disorders continues to increase. As efficient therapies are few, attention has turned towards the use of so-called functional foods to mediate against gut disorder. These target particular genera of gut bacteria seen as beneficial, e.g. bifidobacteria, lactobacilli. The use of products containing live microbial species (probiotics) has a long history of use in humans and many trials have been reported as 'positive'. Taking the view that positive components of the gut flora already exist in the intestinal tract, the prebiotic concept has been developed. Here, dietary carbohydrates have a selective metabolism within the gut flora thereby shifting the community towards a more advantageous structure. Conventional fibres like pectins, cellulose, etc. are not selectively metabolised by gut bacteria. However, certain oligosaccharides do have this capability. Most research has been conducted with fructooligosaccharides, like inulin, which have a powerful bifidogenic effect. Trials are ongoing to determine the clinical benefits of prebiotic use. Intestinal disorders like ulcerative colitis, gastroenteritis and irritable bowel syndrome are particular targets. (c) 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Comorbidity between depression and inflammatory bowel disease explained by immune-inflammatory, oxidative, and nitrosative stress; tryptophan catabolite; and gut–brain pathways

The nature of depression has recently been reconceptualized, being conceived as the clinical expression of activated immune-inflammatory, oxidative, and nitrosative stress (IO&NS) pathways, including tryptophan catabolite (TRYCAT), autoimmune, and gut–brain pathways. IO&NS pathways are similarly integral to the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). The increased depression prevalence in IBD associates with a lower quality of life and increased morbidity in IBD, highlighting the role of depression in modulating the pathophysiology of IBD.This review covers data within such a wider conceptualization that better explains the heightened co-occurrence of IBD and depression. Common IO&NS underpinning between both disorders is evidenced by increased pro-inflammatory cytokine levels, eg, interleukin-1 (IL-1) and tumor necrosis factor-α, IL-6 trans-signalling; Th-1- and Th-17-like responses; neopterin and soluble IL-2 receptor levels; positive acute phase reactants (haptoglobin and C-reactive protein); lowered levels of negative acute phase reactants (albumin, transferrin, zinc) and anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-10 and transforming growth factor-β); increased O&NS with damage to lipids, proteinsm and DNA; increased production of nitric oxide (NO) and inducible NO synthase; lowered plasma tryptophan but increased TRYCAT levels; autoimmune responses; and increased bacterial translocation. As such, heightened IO&NS processes in depression overlap with the biological underpinnings of IBD, potentially explaining their increased co-occurrence. This supports the perspective that there is a spectrum of IO&NS disorders that includes depression, both as an emergent comorbidity and as a contributor to IO&NS processes. Such a frame of reference has treatment implications for IBD when “comorbid” with depression.

Intestinal Anti-Inflammatory Activity of Baccharis dracunculifolia in the Trinitrobenzenesulphonic Acid Model of Rat Colitis

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq)

Dietary intervention with green dwarf banana flour (Musa sp AAA) prevents intestinal inflammation in a trinitrobenzenesulfonic acid model of rat colitis

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)