Pension structural reforms, re-reforms and their effects on social welfare: The case of Chile

This article fi rst summarizes the structural reforms of pensions (total or partial privatization) in Latin America and Central and Eastern Europe, identifying their advantages and disadvantages, and does the same with the international process of re-reforms of pensions with a greater role of the state. Second, chooses Chile as a case study, as a world pioneer in both types of reforms; describes their characteristics and effects on social welfare of the structural reform of 1981 and the re-reform of 2008. Such effects are evaluated based on ten basic principles of social security from the International Labour Offi ce (ILO): 1) social dialogue to approve the reforms, 2) universal coverage of the population, 3) equal treatment of insured persons, 4) social solidarity, 5) gender equity, 6) suffi ciency of benefi ts, 7) effi ciency and reasonable administrative cost, 8) social participation in the management of the system, 9) role of the state and supervision, and 10) fi nancial sustainability. Third, it summarizes the advantages and disadvantages-challenges of the re-reform and informs on the current debate for further reforms.

Dynamics of North Patagonian rainforests from fine-resolution pollen, charcoal and tree-ring analysis, Chonos Archipelago, Southern Chile

Fine-resolution palaeoecological and dendrochronological methods were used to investigate the impacts of climate change, and natural and anthropogenic disturbances on vegetation in the North Patagonian rainforest of southern Chile at decadal to century timescales during the late Holocene. A lake sediment mud–water interface core was collected from the northern Chonos Archipelago and analysed for pollen and charcoal. Dendrochronological analysis of tree cores collected from stands of Pilgerodendron uviferum close to the lake site was incorporated into the study. The combined analysis showed that the present mosaic of vegetation types in this region is a function of environmental changes across a range of timescales: millennial climate change, more recent natural and anthropogenic disturbances, and possibly short-term climatic variations. Of particular interest is the spatiotemporal distribution of Pilgerodendron uviferum dieback/burning in the Chonos Archipelago region.

Postglacial formation and dynamics of North Patagonian Rainforest in the Chonos Archipelago, Southern Chile

Pollen analysis of continuous sediment cores from two lakes in the northern Chonos Archipelago (44S) in southern Chile shows a complete postglacial record of vegetation change. The fossil records indicate that deglaciation was complete in the northern Chonos by at least 13,600 14Cyr BP. Ericaceous heath and grassland persisted for more than 600 years after deglaciation under the influence of dry/cold climates and frequent burning. Nothofagus-Pilgerodendron-Podocarpus forest, with modern analogues in the southern Chonos Archipelago, was established across the northern islands by 12,400 14Cyr BP under increasingly warm and wet climates. There is no evidence for a return to cooler climates during the Younger Dryas chronozone. The rise of Tepualia stipularis and Weinmannia trichosperma as important forest components between 10,600 and 6000 14Cyr BP may be associated withclimates that were warmer than present. The collapse of Pilgerodendron communities during this time may have been triggered by a combination of factors related to disturbance frequency including tephra deposition events, fire and climate change. After 6000 14Cyr BP Pilgerodendron recovers and Nothofagus-Pilgerodendron-Tepualia forest persists until the present. European logging and burning activity may have increased the susceptibility of North Patagonian Rainforest to invasion by introduced species and to future collapse of the long-lived Pilgerodendron communities.

Museums and youth: between misunderstanding and disappointment. Youth perceptions and arguments about the cultural consumption of museums in Chile

Young people are less explored in museum audience research; this is a paradoxical situation when considering its strategic location in the cultural reproduction and if considering the high performing cultural consumption compared with other sectors. The phenomenon of museums consumption by young Chileans who are self recognized as public and non-public museums is explored from a qualitative approach. It was conducted with focus groups in the three largest cities in Chile (Santiago, Valparaíso and Concepción). They identify the museum as a cultural institution in full force. However, in questioning museums activity youth reveal the specificity of their cultural matrix. This is referred to a social temporality based on the fragment, the discourse of familiarity, proximity and instead of breaking and critical. They claim a museum aesthetic / historical experience based on pleasure and enjoyment. An overview is proposed to further clarify the youth cultural consumption to characterize more precisely the place of the museum in the set, to design more effective policies museums.

Indigenous rights in Chile: National identity and majority group support for multicultural policies

We examine support for policies affecting indigenous ethnic minorities in Chile. Specifically, we examine the role of national group definitions that include the largest indigenous group—the Mapuche—in different ways. Based on questionnaire data from nonindigenous Chilean students (N = 338), we empirically distinguish iconic inclusion, whereby the Mapuche are seen as an important part of Chile's history and identity on the one hand, from egalitarian inclusion, which represents the Mapuche as citizens of equal importance to the nonindigenous majority on the other. Both forms of inclusion positively predict support for indigenous rights, independent of participants' political affiliation, strength of national identification, and social distance. A second study (N = 277) replicates this finding whilst controlling for right-wing authoritarianism, social dominance orientation, blind patriotism, and constructive patriotism. It also finds iconic inclusion to be predictive of a pro-Mapuche position regarding the unrest over the issue of ancestral land in 2009. We conclude that understanding how national identity affects attitudes about minority rights necessitates appreciating the importance of particular meanings of nationality, and not only the strength of identification.

Environmental pricing of externalities from different sources of electricity generation in Chile

The rapid increase in electricity demand in Chile means a choice must be made between major investments in renewable or non-renewable sources for additional production. Current projects to develop large dams for hydropower in Chilean Patagonia impose an environmental price by damaging the natural environment. On the other hand, the increased use of fossil fuels entails an environmental price in terms of air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions contributing to climate change. This paper studies the debate on future electricity supply in Chile by investigating the preferences of households for a variety of different sources of electricity generation such as fossil fuels, large hydropower in Chilean Patagonia and other renewable energy sources. Using Double Bounded Dichotomous Choice Contingent Valuation, a novel advanced disclosure method and internal consistency test are used to elicit the willingness to pay for less environmentally damaging sources. Policy results suggest a strong preference for renewable energy sources with higher environmental prices imposed by consumers on electricity generated from fossil fuels than from large dams in Chilean Patagonia. Policy results further suggest the possibility of introducing incentives for renewable energy developments that would be supported by consumers through green tariffs or environmental premiums. Methodological findings suggest that advanced disclosure learning overcomes the problem of internal inconsistency in SB-DB estimates.

Assessment of bioavailable arsenic and copper in soils and sediments from the Antofagasta region of northern Chile

Copper levels of nearly 500 mg l(-1) were measured in aqueous extracts of soil and sediment samples from the lowlands of Antofagasta. Arsenic levels of up to 183 mg l(-1) were found in river sediments, and 27.5 mg l(-1) arsenic was found at the location of a dam where potable water is extracted. This indicates that the arsenic contamination of water supplies reported recently for the pre-Andes may be a widespread problem throughout the region. Copper contamination from smelting activities also provides cause for concern as elevated levels were found in aqueous extracts of soil up to 20 km away from a smelter. This study went beyond traditional chemical analysis by assessing the potential benefits of using microbial biosensors as an alternative to determination of chemical speciation, to provide an environmentally relevant interpretation of soil/sediment residue levels. This approach is simple to use and enables a rapid, low cost assessment of pollutant bioavailability. It may, therefore, be of use for further investigations in the region and beyond.

Isolation and characterization of a novel simazine-degrading bacterium from agricultural soil of central Chile, Pseudomonas sp MHP41

s-Triazine herbicides are used extensively in South America in agriculture and forestry. In this study, a bacterium designated as strain MHP41, capable of degrading simazine and atrazine, was isolated from agricultural soil in the Quillota valley, central Chile. Strain MHP41 is able to grow in minimal medium, using simazine as the sole nitrogen source. In this medium, the bacterium exhibited a growth rate of mu = 0.10 h(-1), yielding a high biomass of 4.2 x 10(8) CFU mL(-1). Resting cells of strain MHP41 degrade more than 80% of simazine within 60 min. The atzA, atzB, atzC, atzD, atzE and atzF genes encoding the enzymes of the simazine upper and lower pathways were detected in strain MHP41. The motile Gram-negative bacterium was identified as a Pseudomonas sp., based on the Biolog microplate system and comparative sequence analyses of the 16S rRNA gene. Amplified ribosomal DNA restriction analysis allowed the differentiation of strain MHP41 from Pseudomonas sp. ADP. The comparative 16S rRNA gene sequence analyses suggested that strain MHP41 is closely related to Pseudomonas nitroreducens and Pseudomonas multiresinovorans. This is the first s-triazine-degrading bacterium isolated in South America. Strain MHP41 is a potential biocatalyst for the remediation of s-triazine-contaminated environments.

Parties, cleavages, and issue evolution: The case of the religious-secular cleavage in Chile

Several recent articles have reached different conclusions regarding the impact of the religious–secular cleavage in Chile. The resolution of this debate has important consequences for the understanding of cleavages. Studies subscribing to the view that parties have considerable agency in the maintenance of cleavages have found that religiosity no longer affects vote choice, while studies rooted in a sociological perspective argue that religiosity still matters. We show that the reason for the discrepant results is because a partisan realignment is underway, whereby religious voters are gradually shifting their loyalties from the parties of the left to the parties of the right, matching a division that has taken place at the elite level. These results are consistent with an issue evolution perspective, which provides a clearer articulation of how cleavages form than either the agency or the sociological approaches.

Representaciones sociales de la depresión de los habitantes del barrio la legua de Santiago de Chile

Esta investigación tiene como objetivo aprehender y analizar las representaciones sociales sobre la depresión elaboradas por los habitantes del barrio La Legua en Santiago de Chile. Participaron en esta investigación 200 habitantes del barrio La Legua, de ambos sexos, mayores de 18 años. Los dispositivos de recogida de datos fueron el Cuestionario de Asociación Libre de Palabras y el Inventario de Depresión de Beck BDI-II. Los datos obtenidos por el cuestionario fueron tratados por medio de los software Evoc, Simi y Tri-Deux y analizados de acuerdo al abordaje estructural de las representaciones sociales y análisis factorial de correspondecia (AFC). Los datos obtenidos por medio del BDI-II fueron procesados a través del software SPSS. En las conclusiones se problematiza la relación entre los distintos factores asociados a la depresión en el contexto particular de La Legua y las representaciones sociales construidas por sus habitantes. Se observó que los elementos de mayor consensualidad fueron tristeza, angustia, problemas y enfermedad. Las divergencias fueron moderadas. Se percibe que para los habitantes del barrio La Legua la depresión está fuertemente asociada a la esfera afectiva, pero se infiere que también es el resultado de la complejidad del entorno social; RESUMO: Esta pesquisa teve como objectivo principal apreender e analisar as representações sociais da depressão desenvolvidas pelos habitantes do bairro La Legua no Santiago de Chile. Participaram na pesquisa 200 habitantes do bairro, de ambos os sexos, com mais de 18 anos. A recolha de dados foi feita através de questionário, utilizando a Técnica de Associação Livre de Palavras e Beck Depression Inventory BDI-II. Os dados obtidos por associação livre de palavras foram tratados usando software Evoc, Simi e Tri-Deux e analisados segundo a abordagem estrutural das representações sociais e análise fatorial de correspondência (AFC). Os dados obtidos pelo BDI-II foram processados através do software SPSS. As conclusões questionam a relação entre os diferentes factores associados à depressão no contexto particular do bairro La Legua e as representações sociais desenvolvidas pelos seus habitantes. Observou-se que os elementos de maior consensualidade foram a tristeza, a angústia, os problemas e a doença. As divergências encontradas foram moderadas. Percebe-se que para os habitantes do bairro La Legua a depressão está fortemente associada à esfera afectiva mas infere-se igualmente que também resulta da complexidade do meio social; ABSTRACT: This research aims to understand and analyze social representations of depression held by inhabitants of La Legua neighborhood in Santiago, Chile. A total of 200 inhabitants, of both genders older than 18 years of age participated in the study. The instruments used were: Free Technique of Word Association and Beck Depression Inventory BDI-II. The data obtained by the free technique of word association were processed using software Evoc, Simi and Tri-Deux and analyzed through the structural perspective of the social representations and the factorial analysis of correspondence (AFC). The data obtained by the BDI-II were processed using software SPSS. In conclusion, the discussion is about the association of the different factors of depression in this specific context and the social representations elaborated by the inhabitants of La Legua neighborhood. It was observed that the most consensuality elements were sadness, anxiety, problems and disease. The differences were moderate. It is perceived that for inhabitants of La Legua neighborhood depression is strongly associated with the affective sphere, but it appears that it is also the result of the complexity of the social environment.

Luta Armada em Portugal (1970-1974)

A problemática do recurso à luta armada para derrubar a ditadura em Portugal gerou discussões, debates e rupturas no seio da oposição portuguesa muito antes de terem surgido as primeiras organizações que realizaram acções armadas. Foi no rescaldo da campanha para as eleições presidenciais de 1958, perante o apoio popular à campanha de Humberto Delgado, candidato da oposição, e a constatação da dimensão da fraude eleitoral, que ocorreram as primeiras discussões acerca da inevitabilidade recorrer à violência armada para derrubar a ditadura. Porém, apenas na década de 70 as circunstâncias políticas, económicas e sociais no país favorecem o aparecimento de outras organizações armadas. Os quase dez anos de guerra colonial tinham desgastado o regime e as manifestações contra a guerra eram cada vez maiores, com o numero de desertores e refractários a crescer de ano para ano. Ao mesmo tempo, o pais ia-se industrializando e terciarizando; assistia-se ao crescimento da classe média, da escolarização, da emigração e a uma mudança de mentalidade, trazida pelo acesso cada vez maior ao que se passava no mundo. Seria neste contexto que as formas tradicionais de oposição, baseadas em manifestações pacíficas e abaixo-assinados, são sentidas como ultrapassadas e ineficazes e começam a proliferar as organizações marxistas-leninistas que teorizavam sobre a luta armada e concebiam planos de acções armadas contra o regime, aumentando o número daqueles que defendiam que o regime só cairia com o recurso à violência. Em 1967, a LUAR, levava a cabo a primeira acção armada contra o regime, o assalto à agência do Banco de Portugal na Figueira da Foz, para obter dinheiro que seria utilizado no financiamento de futuras acções armadas. Em 1970, o Partido Comunista Português, depois de um prolongadíssimo período de maturação, avançava com a ARA que levou a cabo a primeira acção em Outubro desse ano, a sabotagem ao navio Cunene que participa da logística de apoio à guerra colonial. Em 1971, foram as Brigadas Revolucionárias que desencadearam a primeira acção, um atentado bombista contra o Quartel da Nato na Fonte da Telha. Até ao 25 de Abril de 1974, várias acções armadas seriam cometidas por estas organizações, com a particularidade de apenas atingirem o aparelho repressivo e militar do regime, e de seguirem o princípio irredutível de não fazer vítimas mortais entre os civis. O 25 de Abril de 1974, corresponderia ao epílogo de um processo de contestação armada ao Estado Novo que foi acelerando nos seus derradeiros anos.