Simulación del proceso de rotura por tracción de alambres de acero perlítico con un modelo de fisura cohesiva

La fractura de metales dúctiles como el acero suele explicarse a partir de la hipótesis de nucleación, crecimiento y coalescencia de microhuecos. A partir de esta teoría, se han desarrollado diversos modelos numéricos, entre los que el modelo de Gurson y sus variantes son los más extendidos. Dichos modelos reproducen matemáticamente el fenómeno físico de crecimiento de huecos resultando en un desarrollo progresivo del daño en el interior del material durante un ensayo de tracción. En estos modelos, el daño comienza a desarrollarse en fases muy tempranas del ensayo, incluso anteriores a la carga máxima. Ensayos realizados por los autores parecen indicar, sin embargo, que en el caso de barras de acero eutéctico empleado en la fabricación de alambres de pretensado, el daño originado en el interior del material como consecuencia del crecimiento de microhuecos sólo es apreciable en un estado muy avanzado del ensayo, momentos antes de producirse la rotura. Además, desde hace décadas se conoce que la triaxialidad de tensiones tiene una fuerte influencia sobre la rotura de los materiales. En este trabajo se presenta un modelo de rotura para elementos de acero sometidos a tracción, basado en un comportamiento cohesivo del material y que contempla el valor de la triaxialidad de tensiones, diferente en cada punto de la sección crítica de rotura. The fracture of ductile materials, such as steel, is usually explained with the theory of nucleation, growth and coalescence of microvoids. Based on this theory, many numerical models have been developed, with a special mention to Gurson-type models. These models simulate mathematically the physical growth of microvoids, leading to a progressive development of the internal damage that takes place during a tensile test. In these models, the damage starts to develop in very early stages of the test. Tests carried out by the authors seem to point out that, in the case of eutectoid steel bars used for manufacturing prestressing steel wires, the internal damage that takes place as a result of the growth of microvoids is only noticeable in a very advanced state of the test. In addition to this, it is known that the stress triaxiality has a strong influence over the fracture of ductile materials. This work presents a fracture model for steel specimens in a tensile test, based on a cohesive behaviour and taking into account the effect of stress triaxiality, which is different in every point of the fracture plane.

Influence of long-time storage. Stress relaxation losses of prestressing steel wires

Prestressed structures are susceptible to relaxation losses which are of significant importance in structural design. After being manufactured, prestressing wires are coiled to make their storage and transportation easier. The possible deleterious effects of this operation on the stress relaxation behavior of prestressing steel wires are usually neglected, though it has been noticed by manufacturers and contractors that when relaxation tests are carried out after a long-time storage, on occasions relaxation losses are higher than those measured a short time after manufacturing. The influence of coiling on the relaxation losses is checked by means of experimental work and confirmed with a simple analytical model. The results show that some factors like initial residual stresses, excessively long-time storage or storage at high temperatures,can trigger or accentuate this damage. However, it is also shown that if the requirements of standards are fulfilled (minimum coiling diameters) these effects can be neglected.

Einfluss der Langzeitlagerung Relaxationsverluste bei Vorspanndahten

Spannbetonbauteile sind anfällig für Relaxationsverluste, deren Berücksichtigung für die Tragwerksplanung von signifikanter Bedeutung ist. Spanndrähte werden nach der Herstellung zur Vereinfachung von Lagerung und Transport auf Coils gewickelt. Eventuelle nachteilige Auswirkungen dieser Vorgehensweise auf das Relaxationsverhalten von Spannstahldrähten werden in der Regel vernachlässigt, obwohl Hersteller sowie Bauunternehmer durch Relaxationsversuche nach langen Lagerzeiten festgestellt haben, dass der Relaxationsverlust in einigen Fällen höher ausfiel als kurz nach der Herstellung. Daher wird der Einfluss des Aufwickelns auf den Relaxationsverlust durch eine experimentelle Untersuchung überprüft und durch die Anwendung eines einfachen Analysemodells bestätigt. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass einige Faktoren wie die Anfangsspannung, Langzeitlagerung oder Lagerung bei hohen Temperaturen Relaxationsverluste auslösen oder verstärken können. Es wird jedoch auch gezeigt, dass diese Auswirkungen unter Berücksichtigung der Anforderungen der entsprechenden Richtlinien (Mindest durch - messer Coil) vernachlässigt werden können.

Influencia de las condiciones de almacenamiento sobre la relajación de aceros de pretensado = Influence of storage conditions on prestressing steel relaxation losses

La pérdida de tensión por relajación en las armaduras activas afecta de forma importante a las estructuras de hormigón pretensado. Por ello se realizan ensayos de relajación de los alambres y cordones de pretensado tras su fabricación. Después, el material es enrollado y almacenado durante periodos que en ocasiones pueden superar el año de duración. Generalmente se desprecia la influencia que estas operaciones posteriores a la fabricación pueden tener sobre el material. Sin embargo, diversos fabricantes y suministradores han constatado experimentalmente que, en ocasiones, el material almacenado durante un periodo prolongado presenta pérdidas de relajación mayores que inmediatamente tras su fabricación. En este trabajo se realizan ensayos de laboratorio para comprobar la influencia que el radio de enrollamiento y el periodo de almacenamiento tienen sobre las pérdidas de relajación. También se propone un modelo analítico que permite predecir de manera razonablemente aproximada el valor del ensayo de relajación sobre un alambre sometido a un enrollamiento prolongado. Este modelo explica la evolución del perfil de tensiones durante el proceso de enrollamiento- almacenamiento-desenrollamiento, así como la influencia de las tensiones residuales.Stress relaxation losses on active reinforcement have significant impact on prestressed concrete structures. This is why relaxation tests are carried out on prestressing steel wires and strands after being manufactured. Then, these materials are coiled and stored for a long-term period, sometimes in excess of one year. The influence of these operations, carried out after manufacturing, is usually neglected. Nevertheless, some manufacturers and contractors have noticed that, sometimes, when relaxation tests are carried out after a long-term storage, the relaxation losses found are higher than those measured immediately after manufacturing. In this work, lab tests are performed to check the influence of the coiling radius and the period of storage on the relaxation test. In addition to this, an analytical model is presented to predict the results of a relaxation

A fracture model for pearlitic steel bars using a cohesive model

The fracture of ductile materials, such as metals, is usually explained with the theory of nucleation, growth and coalescence of microvoids. Based on this theory, many numerical models have been developed, with a special mention to Gurson-type models. These models simulate mathematically the physical growth of microvoids, leading to a progressive development of the internal damage that takes place during a tensile test. In these models, the damage starts to develop in very early stages of the test. Tests carried out by the authors suggest that, in the case of some eutectoid steels such as those used for manufacturing prestressing steel wires, the internal damage that takes place as a result of the growth of microvoids is only noticeable in very late stages of the tensile test. In the authors’ opinion, using a cohesive model as a failure criterion may be interesting in this case; a cohesive model only requires two parameters to be defined, with the fracture energy being one of them, which can be obtained experimentally. In addition to this, given that it is known that the stress triaxiality has a strong influence on the fracture of ductile materials, a cohesive model whose parameters are affected by the value of the stress triaxiality can be considered. This work presents a fracture model for steel specimens in a tensile test, based on a cohesive behaviour and taking into account the effect of stress triaxiality, which is different at each point of the fracture plane.

Simulación del proceso de rotura por tracción de alambres de acero perlítico con un modelo de fisura cohesiva

La fractura de metales dúctiles como el acero suele explicarse a partir de la hipótesis de nucleación, crecimiento y coalescencia de microhuecos. A partir de esta teoría, se han desarrollado diversos modelos numéricos, entre los que el modelo de Gurson y sus variantes son los más extendidos. Dichos modelos reproducen matemáticamente el fenómeno físico de crecimiento de huecos resultando en un desarrollo progresivo del daño en el interior del material durante un ensayo de tracción. En estos modelos, el daño comienza a desarrollarse en fases muy tempranas del ensayo, incluso anteriores a la carga máxima. Ensayos realizados por los autores parecen indicar, sin embargo, que en el caso de barras de acero eutéctico empleado en la fabricación de alambres de pretensado, el daño originado en el interior del material como consecuencia del crecimiento de microhuecos sólo es apreciable en un estado muy avanzado del ensayo, momentos antes de producirse la rotura. Además, desde hace décadas se conoce que la triaxialidad de tensiones tiene una fuerte influencia sobre la rotura de los materiales. En este trabajo se presenta un modelo de rotura para elementos de acero sometidos a tracción, basado en un comportamiento cohesivo del material y que contempla el valor de la triaxialidad de tensiones, diferente en cada punto de la sección crítica de rotura. The fracture of ductile materials, such as steel, is usually explained with the theory of nucleation, growth and coalescence of microvoids. Based on this theory, many numerical models have been developed, with a special mention to Gurson-type models. These models simulate mathematically the physical growth of microvoids, leading to a progressive development of the internal damage that takes place during a tensile test. In these models, the damage starts to develop in very early stages of the test. Tests carried out by the authors seem to point out that, in the case of eutectoid steel bars used for manufacturing prestressing steel wires, the internal damage that takes place as a result of the growth of microvoids is only noticeable in a very advanced state of the test. In addition to this, it is known that the stress triaxiality has a strong influence over the fracture of ductile materials. This work presents a fracture model for steel specimens in a tensile test, based on a cohesive behaviour and taking into account the effect of stress triaxiality, which is different in every point of the fracture plane.

Fracture behaviour of notched round bars made of PMMA subjected to torsion at -60 °C

This paper presents seventy new experimental results from PMMA notched specimens tested under torsion at 60 C. The notch root radius ranges from 0.025 to 7.0 mm. At this temperature the non-linear effects previously observed on specimens of the same material tested at room temperature strongly reduce. The averaged value of the strain energy density over a control volume is used to assess the critical loads to failure. The radius of the control volume and the critical strain energy density are evaluated a priori by using in combination the mode III critical stress intensity factor from cracked-like specimens and the critical stress to failure detected from semicircular notches with a large notch root radius

Experimental validation of a fracture model for pearlitic steel bars based on the cohesive zone model

Congreso internacional celebrado en Praga sobre modelos numéricos de fractura en el campo de la ciencia de materiales y estructuras.

Identification and dynamics of polyglycine II nanocrystals in Argiope trifasciata flagelliform silk

Spider silks combine a significant number of desirable characteristics in one material, including large tensile strength and strain at breaking, biocompatibility, and the possibility of tailoring their properties. Major ampullate gland silk (MAS) is the most studied silk and their properties are explained by a double lattice of hydrogen bonds and elastomeric protein chains linked to polyalanine β-nanocrystals. However, many basic details regarding the relationship between composition, microstructure and properties in silks are still lacking. Here we show that this relationship can be traced in flagelliform silk (Flag) spun by Argiope trifasciata spiders after identifying a phase consisting of polyglycine II nanocrystals. The presence of this phase is consistent with the dominant presence of the –GGX– and –GPG– motifs in its sequence. In contrast to the passive role assigned to polyalanine nanocrystals in MAS, polyglycine II nanocrystals can undergo growing/collapse processes that contribute to increase toughness and justify the ability of Flag to supercontract.

The variability and interdependence of spider viscid line tensile properties

True stress-true strain curves of naturally spun viscid line fibers retrieved directly from the spiral of orb-webs built by Argiope trifasciata spiders were measured using a novel methodology. This new procedure combines a method for removing the aqueous coating of the fibers and a technique that allows the accurate measurement of their cross sectional area. Comparison of the tensile behaviour of different samples indicates that naturally spun viscid lines show a large variability, comparable to that of other silks, such as major ampullate gland silk and silkworm silk. Nevertheless, application of a statistical analysis allowed identifying two independent parameters that underlie the variability and characterize the observed range of true stress-true strain curves. Combination of this result with previous mechanical and microstructural data suggested the assignment of these two independent effects to the degree of alignment of the protein chains and to the local relative humidity which, in turn, depends on the composition of the viscous coating and on the external environmental conditions.

Experimental validation of a fracture model for pearlitic steel bars based on the cohesive zone model

Steel is, together with concrete, the most widely used material in civil engineering works. Not only its high strength, but also its ductility is of special interest, since it allows for more energy to be stored before failure. A better understanding of the material behaviour before failure may lead to better structural safety strategies.

Simulación de la rotura de barras de acero perlítico sometidas a tracción mediante un modelo de fisura cohesiva. Validación experimental

Las probetas cilíndricas fabricadas con materiales metálicos de elevada ductilidad, como el aluminio o el cobre, sometidas a tracción suelen presentar una rotura comúnmente denominada rotura en copa y cono, debido a su geometría. Este tipo de rotura se reproduce numéricamente con éxito mediante el modelo de Gurson-Tvergaard- Needleman, cuya formulación matemática se basa en el fenómeno físico de nucleación, crecimiento y coalescencia de microhuecos. A diferencia de dichos materiales, las barras de acero perlítico, material con una ductilidad apreciable, presentan un frente de rotura plano que no puede simularse correctamente con los modelos antes mencionados, apareciendo una región interior de daño que, en principio, también puede atribuirse a un fenómeno de nucleación y crecimiento de microhuecos, mientras que en el exterior aparece una zona cuya micrografía permite asociar su rotura a un mecanismo de clivaje. En trabajos anteriores los autores han presentado un elemento de intercara cohesivo dependiente de la triaxialidad de tensiones que, incorporado a un código de elementos finitos, permite reproducir de forma razonable el daño que se desarrolla en la región interior mencionada. En este trabajo se presentan los resultados de una campaña experimental que permite validar el modelo desarrollado. Para ello, se ensayan probetas de diferentes diámetros y se comparan los resultados con los obtenidos numéricamente, empleando tres bases extensométricas diferentes en cada uno de los diámetros. Los resultados numéricos se ajustan razonablemente bien a los obtenidos experimentalmente.The cylindrical specimens made of high-ductility metallic materials, such as aluminium and copper, usually fail showing a fracture surface commonly known as cup-cone fracture because of its shape. This type of fracture is successfully reproduced using the Gurson-Tvergaard-Needleman model, which is based on the physical process of nucleation, growth and coalescence of microvoids. Unlike these materials, pearlitic steel bars, which are considerably ductile, show a flat fracture surface that cannot be correctly reproduced with the aforementioned models. In this flat fracture surface, a dark region can be observed in the centre of the specimen, which is the result of a process of nucleation and growth of microvoids, while in the rest of the fracture surface a different region can be identified, which a micrographic study reveals to be the result of a process of cleavage. In previous works, the authors presented a triaxiality-dependent cohesive interface element that, implemented in a finite element code, can reproduce in a reasonably accurate manner the damage that takes place in the dark region mentioned before. The results of an experimental campaign designed to validate the model are presented in this paper. For it, different diameter specimens are tested and these results are compared to those obtained with the numerical models, using three different initial lengths for the strain. Numerical results agree reasonably well with those obtained experimentally.

Simulación de la rotura de barras de acero perlítico sometidas a tracción mediante un modelo de fisura cohesiva. Validación experimental

Las probetas cilíndricas fabricadas con materiales metálicos de elevada ductilidad, como el aluminio o el cobre, sometidas a tracción suelen presentar una rotura comúnmente denominada rotura en copa y cono, debido a su geometría. Este tipo de rotura se reproduce numéricamente con éxito mediante el modelo de Gurson-Tvergaard- Needleman, cuya formulación matemática se basa en el fenómeno físico de nucleación, crecimiento y coalescencia de microhuecos. A diferencia de dichos materiales, las barras de acero perlítico, material con una ductilidad apreciable, presentan un frente de rotura plano que no puede simularse correctamente con los modelos antes mencionados, apareciendo una región interior de daño que, en principio, también puede atribuirse a un fenómeno de nucleación y crecimiento de microhuecos, mientras que en el exterior aparece una zona cuya micrografía permite asociar su rotura a un mecanismo de clivaje. En trabajos anteriores los autores han presentado un elemento de intercara cohesivo dependiente de la triaxialidad de tensiones que, incorporado a un código de elementos finitos, permite reproducir de forma razonable el daño que se desarrolla en la región interior mencionada. En este trabajo se presentan los resultados de una campaña experimental que permite validar el modelo desarrollado. Para ello, se ensayan probetas de diferentes diámetros y se comparan los resultados con los obtenidos numéricamente, empleando tres bases extensométricas diferentes en cada uno de los diámetros. Los resultados numéricos se ajustan razonablemente bien a los obtenidos experimentalmente.The cylindrical specimens made of high-ductility metallic materials, such as aluminium and copper, usually fail showing a fracture surface commonly known as cup-cone fracture because of its shape. This type of fracture is successfully reproduced using the Gurson-Tvergaard-Needleman model, which is based on the physical process of nucleation, growth and coalescence of microvoids. Unlike these materials, pearlitic steel bars, which are considerably ductile, show a flat fracture surface that cannot be correctly reproduced with the aforementioned models. In this flat fracture surface, a dark region can be observed in the centre of the specimen, which is the result of a process of nucleation and growth of microvoids, while in the rest of the fracture surface a different region can be identified, which a micrographic study reveals to be the result of a process of cleavage. In previous works, the authors presented a triaxiality-dependent cohesive interface element that, implemented in a finite element code, can reproduce in a reasonably accurate manner the damage that takes place in the dark region mentioned before. The results of an experimental campaign designed to validate the model are presented in this paper. For it, different diameter specimens are tested and these results are compared to those obtained with the numerical models, using three different initial lengths for the strain. Numerical results agree reasonably well with those obtained experimentally.

The Cohesive Crack Model Applied To Notched PMMA Specimens Obeying a Non Linear Behaviour Under Torsion Loading

This article presents a new material model developed with the aim of analyzing failure of blunt notched components made of nonlinear brittle materials. The model, which combines the cohesive crack model with Hencky's theory of total deformations, is used to simulate an experimental benchmark carried out previously by the authors. Such combination is achieved through the embedded crack approach concept. In spite of the unavailability of precise material data, the numerical predictions obtained show good agreement with the experimental results.

Topographical and mechanical characterization of living eukaryotic cells on opaque substrates: development of a general procedure and its application to the study of non-adherent lymphocytes

The mechanical behavior of living murine T-lymphocytes was assessed by atomic force microscopy (AFM). A robust experimental procedure was developed to overcome some features of lymphocytes, in particular their spherical shape and non-adherent character. The procedure included the immobilization of the lymphocytes on amine-functionalized substrates, the use of hydrodynamic effects on the deflection of the AFM cantilever to monitor the approaching, and the use of the jumping mode for obtaining the images. Indentation curves were analyzed according to Hertz's model for contact mechanics. The calculated values of the elastic modulus are consistent both when considering the results obtained from a single lymphocyte and when comparing the curves recorded from cells of different specimens