Aristotelian predicables, universality and realism: the logic of comparison in topics as denying the view that Aristotle was a realist

Aristotle is reportedly held to have been a Moderate Realist in that he would maintain that a concept derives from an act of grasping a mind-independent universal object that exists somehow inside of the many different things which the concept is predicated of. As far as a universal is independent of mind, it would stand for the proper object of a concept that subsumes a given number of things as its own instantiations. But we claim that Aristotle rejected such a view and instead did perceive and comprehend universality as a feature of thought rather than as a feature of reality in its own right. As showed in the chapters of Topics regarding the so-called logic of comparison (with the support of Albert the Great’s commentary), each predicate can be more or less consistent with the attribute of the subject of which it may be predicated. Both essential and accidental attributes assume a definite degree of being related to the degree of belonging to substance. Unlike particular things, the universality of a concept is to be understood always in comparison with another concept according to a hierarchy of predicates in terms of universality degree arranged by comparative terms such as ‘more’, ‘less’, and ‘likewise’. What is really mind-independent are the truth conditions which make a universal true when exclusively referring to a set of things identically meant by the same predicate whose universality is given by the place occupied in the hierarchy of predicates.

Revisiting the Measurement of Anomie

Sociologists coined the term "anomie" to describe societies that are characterized by disintegration and deregulation. Extending beyond conceptualizations of anomie that conflate the measurements of anomie as 'a state of society' and as a 'state of mind', we disentangle these conceptualizations and develop an analysis and measure of this phenomenon focusing on anomie as a perception of the 'state of society'. We propose that anomie encompasses two dimensions: a perceived breakdown in social fabric (i.e., disintegration as lack of trust and erosion of moral standards) and a perceived breakdown in leadership (i.e., deregulation as lack of legitimacy and effectiveness of leadership). Across six studies we present evidence for the validity of the new measure, the Perception of Anomie Scale (PAS). Studies 1a and 1b provide evidence for the proposed factor structure and internal consistency of PAS. Studies 2a-c provide evidence of convergent and discriminant validity. Finally, assessing PAS in 28 countries, we show that PAS correlates with national indicators of societal functioning and that PAS predicts national identification and well-being (Studies 3a & 3b). The broader implications of the anomie construct for the study of group processes are discussed.

EU Sanctions Policy towards Russia: The Sanctioner-Sanctionee’s Game of Thrones. CEPS Working Document No. 402/January 2015

Since Russia’s annexation of the Crimean peninsula and the start of the conflict in the Donbass region, the EU has introduced three waves of restrictive measures against Russia, which are regularly updated. Having thus expanded from measures targeting individuals to entire sectors, the current EU sanctions policy impacts Russia’s financial markets, energy sector and defence industry. On top of this, new bans affect EU investments, services and trade in Crimea and Sevastopol. While they hurt the Russian economy, the EU sanctions also have a boomerang effect, especially in conjunction with the countersanctions imposed by the Kremlin on EU food imports. In this lose-lose situation, the usefulness of the EU sanctions has been called into doubt, in particular in those EU member states that are the most economically intertwined with Russia. How successful has the EU been so far in pushing its case with the Kremlin and what moves are left for the two main actors in the sanctioner-sanctionee ‘Game of Thrones’? This Working Document offers a SWOT analysis of the EU sanctions policy towards Russia and identifies the Strengths for the EU to cultivate, Weaknesses to minimise, Opportunities to seize and Threats to counteract.

Tectonic evolution of the Proterozoic Itremo Group metasediments in central Madagascar

The major geologic units of the Itremo region in central Madagascar include: (1) upper amphibolite to granulite facies (higher grade) Precambrian rocks, mainly para- and orthogneisses, and migmatites; (2) the newly defined Itremo Nappes, a fold-and-thrust belt containing the Proterozoic Itremo Group sediments, metamorphosed at greenschist to lower amphibolite facies (lower grade) conditions: (3) Middle Neoproterozoic and Late Neoproterozoic-Cambrian intrusives. The stratigraphic succession of the Itremo Group in the eastern part of the Itremo region is, from bottom to top: quartzites, metapelites, metacarbonates and metapelites overlain by metacarbonates. During D1 the Itremo Group sediments were detached from their continental substratum, deformed into a fold-and-thrust nappe (Itremo Nappes), and transported on top of higher grade rocks that are intruded by Middle Neoproterozoic (c. 797–780 Ma) granites and gabbros. A second phase of deformation shortening (D2) affected both the Itremo Sedimentary Nappes and structurally underlying higher-grade rocksunits, and formed large-scale N-S-trending F2 folds. S1 axial plane foliations in Itremo Group sediments are truncated by Late Neoproterozoic-Cambrian granites (c. 570–540 Ma). The age of the formation of the Itremo Nappes is not well constrained: they formed in Neoproterozoic times between 780 and 570 Ma.

Age constraints on the tectonic evolution of the Itremo region in Central Madagascar

The Itremo region in Central Madagascar comprises a deformed metasedimentary sequence (Itremo Group) that has undergone greenschist to lower amphibolite facies metamorphism. During a first phase of deformation (D1) Itremo Group sediments were deformed into a fold-and-thrust belt and transported toward the E to NE on top of migmatitic gneisses rocks of Anatananarivo block. A second phase of deformation (D2) affected both the fold-and-thrust belt and structurally underlying units, and formed large-scale N-S trending folds with steeply dipping axial planes. A Late Neoproterozoic Th–U–Pb XRF monazite age (565±17 Ma) dates the emplacement of a granite that truncates first-phase structures in the Itremo Group, and indicates that the fold-and-thrust belt formed prior to ≈565 Ma. Th–U–Pb electron microprobe dating was applied to elongated monazites that lie within the first-phase foliation of Itremo Group metapelites. The detrital cores of zoned monazites reveal two distinct age populations at ∼2000 and 1700 Ma, the latter age giving a maximum depositional age for the Itremo Group. Statistical analysis of ages determined from the rims of zoned monazites and from unzoned monazites indicates three Late Proterozoic–Early Paleozoic monazite growth events at about 565–540, 500 and 430 Ma. The oldest age population is contemporaneous within error, with the intrusion of the dated granite. The two younger age populations are found both in the Th–U–Pb and Ar–Ar data; together with the perturbation of the Rb–Sr system we interpret both ages as due to alteration related to fluid circulation events, possibly connected to the emplacement of pegmatite fields in Central Madagascar. Syn-D1 tectonic growth of contact metamorphism minerals such as andalusite has been observed locally in metapelites along the margin of Middle Neoproterozoic (≈800 Ma) granites, suggesting that D1 in the Itremo Group is contemporaneous with the intrusion of granites at ≈800 Ma. The N-S trending D2 folds are associated with ≈E-W shortening during the final assembly of Gondwana in Late Neoproterozoic–Early Cambrian times.

Continuous CO2/CH4/CO measurements (2012–2014) at Beromünster tall tower station in Switzerland

The understanding of the continental carbon budget is essential to predict future climate change. In order to quantify CO₂ and CH₄ fluxes at the regional scale, a measurement system was installed at the former radio tower in Beromünster as part of the Swiss greenhouse gas monitoring network (CarboCount CH). We have been measuring the mixing ratios of CO₂, CH₄ and CO on this tower with sample inlets at 12.5, 44.6, 71.5, 131.6 and 212.5 m above ground level using a cavity ring down spectroscopy (CRDS) analyzer. The first 2-year (December 2012–December 2014) continuous atmospheric record was analyzed for seasonal and diurnal variations and interspecies correlations. In addition, storage fluxes were calculated from the hourly profiles along the tower. The atmospheric growth rates from 2013 to 2014 determined from this 2-year data set were 1.78 ppm yr⁻¹, 9.66 ppb yr⁻¹ and and -1.27 ppb yr⁻¹ for CO₂, CH₄ and CO, respectively. After detrending, clear seasonal cycles were detected for CO₂ and CO, whereas CH₄ showed a stable baseline suggesting a net balance between sources and sinks over the course of the year. CO and CO₂ were strongly correlated (r² > 0.75) in winter (DJF), but almost uncorrelated in summer. In winter, anthropogenic emissions dominate the biospheric CO₂ fluxes and the variations in mixing ratios are large due to reduced vertical mixing. The diurnal variations of all species showed distinct cycles in spring and summer, with the lowest sampling level showing the most pronounced diurnal amplitudes. The storage flux estimates exhibited reasonable diurnal shapes for CO₂, but underestimated the strength of the surface sinks during daytime. This seems plausible, keeping in mind that we were only able to calculate the storage fluxes along the profile of the tower but not the flux into or out of this profile, since no Eddy covariance flux measurements were taken at the top of the tower.

(Table T1) Ice rafted debris characteristics of ODP Site 177-1092

We have carried out a multiphase analysis of samples from ODP Site 177-1092, Meteor Rise, subantarctic South Atlantic. Samples were analyzed for ice-rafted debris (IRD [see Table T1]) and stable isotopes from benthic foraminifera [see Murphy et al., 2002, doi:10.1016/S0031-0182(01)00495-3]. Both analyses were performed on the same samples. Additional work was performed to identify the paleomagnetic stratigraphy. The analyzed samples range in age from about 2.6(?) Ma to 4.6 Ma, a time span that saw considerable global warmth, but witnessed overall global refrigeration and the transition to truly bipolar glaciations. IRD arrived frequently during the Early and early Late Pliocene, but only as 'background rafting' (occasional grains per sample). The first identifiable IRD above background rafting is associated with marine isotope stage (MIS) KM4 (~3.18 Ma). Successive IRD peaks become larger, the same pattern as noted at nearby Site 114-704. A very large peak near the top of the record, approximately 2.8 Ma, is considered to represent a hiatus. Peaks below 51.3 meters composite depth (mcd) coincide with positive excursions of the oxygen isotopic record, and with negative excursions of the carbon isotopic curve, a pattern also noted at Site 114-704. However, the reasonably large IRD peak at 51 mcd (tentatively identified with MIS G11) coincides with a positive excursion on the carbon isotopic curve and negative excursion on the oxygen isotopic curve. This relationship suggests a northern hemisphere interglacial, rising sea level, destabilization of the Antarctic margin, and delivery of Antarctic icebergs to the Southern Ocean. Such a mechanism has recently been suggested by Kanfoush et al. (2000, doi:10.1126/science.288.5472.1815) for latest Pleistocene stadial/interstadial oscillations. Here we suggest that such a mechanism may have been in place on glacial/interglacial time scales as early as the Late Pliocene.

Mineral and chemical composition of hydrothermally altered rocks and sediments from the Middle Valley, ODP Leg 139 data

The Middle Valley segment at the northern end of the Juan de Fuca Ridge is a deep extensional rift blanketed with 200-500 m of Pleistocene turbiditic sediment. Sites 857 and 858 were drilled during Ocean Drilling Program Leg 139 to determine whether these two sites were hydrologically linked end members of an active hydrothermal circulation system. Site 858 was placed in an area of active hydrothermal discharge with fluids up to 270°C venting through anhydrite-bearing mounds on top of altered sediment. The shallow basement of fine-grained basalt that underlies the vents at Site 858 is interpreted as a seamount that was subsequently buried by turbidites. Site 857 was placed 1.6 km south of the Site 858 vents in a zone of high heat flow and numerous seismically imaged ridge-parallel faults. Drilling at Site 857 encountered sediments that are increasingly altered with depth and that overlie a series of mafic sills at depths of 460-940 m below sea floor. Sill margins and adjacent baked sediment are highly altered to magnesian chlorite and crosscut with veins filled with quartz, chlorite, sulfides, epidote, and wairakite. The sill interiors vary from slightly altered, with unaltered plagioclase and clinopyroxene in a mesostasis replaced by chlorite, to local zones of intense alteration and brecciation. In these latter zones, the sill interiors are pervasively replaced by chlorite, epidote, quartz, pyrite, titanite, and rare actinolite. The most complete replacement is associated with brecciated horizons with low recovery and slickensides on fracture surfaces, which we interpret as intersections between faults and the sills. Geochemically, the alteration of the sill complex is reflected in significant whole-rock depletions in Ca, Sr, and Na with corresponding enrichments in Mg, Al, and most metals. The latter results from the formation of conspicuous sulfide poikiloblasts. In contrast, metamorphism of the Site 858 seamount includes incomplete albitization of plagioclase phenocrysts and replacement of sparse mafic phenocrysts. Much of the basement alteration at Site 858 is confined to crosscutting veins except for a highly altered and veined horizon at the contact between basaltic basement and the overlying sediment. The sill complex at Site 857 is more highly depleted in 18O (d18O = 2.4 per mil - 4.7 per mil) and more pervasively replaced by secondary minerals relative to the extrusives at Site 858 (d18O = 4.5 per mil - 5.5 per mil). There is no evidence of significant albitization of the plagioclase at Site 857, suggesting high Ca/Na in the pore fluids. Fluid-inclusion data from hydrothermal minerals in altered mafic rocks and veins at Sites 857 and 858 show a consistency of homogenization temperatures, varying from 245 to 270°C, which is within the range of temperatures observed for the fluids venting at Site 858. The consistency of the fluid inclusion temperatures, the lack of albitization within the Site 857 sills, and the apparently low water/rock ratio collectively suggest that the sill complex at Site 857 is in thermal equilibrium and being altered by a highly evolved Ca-rich fluid similar to the fluids now venting at Site 858. The alteration evident in these two deep crustal drillsites is a result of the ongoing hydrothermal circulation and is consistent with downhole logging results, instrumented borehole results, and hydrothermal fluid chemistry. The pervasive alteration of the laterally extensive sill-sediment complex at Site 857 determines the chemistry of the fluids that are venting at Site 858. The limited alteration of the Site 858 lavas suggests that this basement edifice acts as a penetrator or ventilator for the regional hydrothermal reservoir with much of the flow focussed at the highly altered and veined sediment-basalt contact.

Concentration of phenols in bottom sediments from the Kandalaksha Bay, White Sea

Data on distribution of organic carbon and phenols near the top of Kandalaksha Gulf, one of the largest gulfs of the White Sea, are presented. Investigations carried out the port city of Kandalasksha indicate that bottom sediments of the area adjoining the port contain synthetic phenols and have elevated concentrations of organic carbon. But in general sediments of this part of the gulf have near-normal concentration and composition of both phenols and organic carbon. This indicates that ecological situation in this area remains near-optimal.

Rb-Sr systematics of volcanic rocks and alteration minerals of ODP Hole 104-642E

Subaerially erupted tholeiites at Hole 642E were never exposed to the high-temperature seawater circulation and alteration conditions that are found at subaqueous ridges. Alteration of Site 642 rocks is therefore the product of the interaction of rocks and fluids at low temperatures. The alteration mineralogy can thus be used to provide information on the geochemical effects of low temperature circulation of seawater. Rubidium-strontium systematics of leached and unleached tholeiites and underlying, continentally-derived dacites reflect interactions with seawater in fractures and vesicular flow tops. The secondary mineral assemblage in the tholeiites consists mainly of smectite, accompanied in a few flows by the assemblage celadonite + calcite (+/- native Cu). Textural relationships suggest that smectites formed early and that celadonite + calcite, which are at least in part cogenetic, formed later than and partially at the expense of smectite. Smectite precipitation occurred under variable, but generally low, water/rock conditions. The smectites contain much lower concentrations of alkali elements than has been reported in seafloor basalts, and sequentially leached fractions of smectite contain Sr that has not achieved isotopic equilibrium. 87Sr/86Sr results of the leaching experiments suggest that Sr was mostly derived from seawater during early periods of smectite precipitation. The basalt-like 87Sr/86Sr of the most readily exchangeable fraction seems to suggest a late period of exposure to very low water /rock. Smectite formation may have primarily occurred in the interval between the nearly 58-Ma age given by the lower series dacites and the 54.5 +/- 0.2 Ma model age given by a celadonite from the top of the tholeiitic section. The 54.5 +/- 0.2 Ma Rb-Sr model age may be recording the timing of foundering of the Voring Plateau. Celadonites precipitated in flows below the top of the tholeiitic section define a Rb-Sr isochron with a slope corresponding to an age of 24.3 +/- 0.4 Ma. This isochron may be reflecting mixing effects due to long-term chemical interaction between seawater and basalts, in which case the age provides only a minimum for the timing of late alteration. Alternatively, inferrential arguments can be made that the 24.3 +/- 0.4 isochron age reflects the timing of the late Oligocene-early Miocene erosional event that affected the Norwegian-Greenland Sea. Correlation of 87Sr/86Sr and 1/Sr in calcites results in a two-component mixing model for late alteration products. One end-member of the mixing trend is Eocene or younger seawater. Strontium from the nonradiogenic endmember can not, however, have been derived directly from the basalts. Rather, the data suggest that Sr in the calcites is a mixture of Sr derived from seawater and from pre-existing smectites. For Site 642, the reaction involved can be generalized as smectite + seawater ++ celadonite + calcite. The geochemical effects of this reaction include net gains of K and CO2 by the secondary mineral assemblage. The gross similarity of the reactions involved in late, low-temperature alteration at Site 642 to those observed in other sea floor basalts suggests that the transfer of K and C02 to the crust during low-temperature seawater-ocean crust interactions may be significant in calculations of global fluxes.

Planktonic foraminifer abundance and estimated sea surface temperatures and salinities of DSDP Leg 74 holes

Two hydraulic piston cores containing the total Quaternary suite were analyzed quantitatively in their planktonic foraminiferal contents. For the Early Pleistocene, the Caribbean standard zonation (BOLLI & PREMOLI-SILVA) can be adopted and refined by the introduction of an additional subzone at its base (the Globorotalia triangula subzone). Local substages are proposed for the Late Pleistocene because index fossils are missing. The use of the transfer-function technique resulted in paleotemperature and paleosalinity curves with a time resolution of cycles of about 4-68,000 years duration. The Early Pleistocene paleoenvironment is characterized by low oscillations of the surface water temperatures, followed by a distinct cooling trend during the Globorotalia viola subzone, a period of smoothed cycles during the Globorotalia hessi subzone and distinctly developed cycles during the late Pleistocene since the oxygen isotope termination III. Grainsize distribution and several dissolution indices gave evidence for current activities on the top of the Walvis Ridge, where the amount of fine grained components in the sediment is reduced in comparison with that of the flanks.

Meteorological measurements from 8 dropsondes released during POLAR 4 flight on 1993-03-04 along a track orthogonal to the pack ice edge north west of Svalbard

Different parameterizations of subgrid-scale fluxes are utilized in a nonhydrostatic and anelastic mesoscale model to study their influence on simulated Arctic cold air outbreaks. A local closure, a profile closure and two nonlocal closure schemes are applied, including an improved scheme, which is based on other nonlocal closures. It accounts for continuous subgrid-scale fluxes at the top of the surface layer and a continuous Prandtl number with respect to stratification. In the limit of neutral stratification the improved scheme gives eddy diffusivities similar to other parameterizations, whereas for strong unstable stratifications they become much larger and thus turbulent transports are more efficient. It is shown by comparison of model results with observations that the application of simple nonlocal closure schemes results in a more realistic simulation of a convective boundary layer than that of a local or a profile closure scheme. Improvements are due to the nonlocal formulation of the eddy diffusivities and to the inclusion of heat transport, which is independent of local gradients (countergradient transport).

(Table 2) Age determination of sediment cores from the Panama Basin

Application of the 230Th normalization method to estimate sediment burial fluxes in six cores from the eastern equatorial Pacific (EEP) reveals that bulk sediment and organic carbon fluxes display a coherent regional pattern during the Holocene that is consistent with modern oceanographic conditions, in contrast with estimates of bulk mass accumulation rates (MARs) derived from core chronologies. Two nearby sites (less than 10 km apart), which have different MARs, show nearly identical 230Th-normalized bulk fluxes. Focusing factors derived from the 230Th data at the foot of the Carnegie Ridge in the Panama Basin are >2 in the Holocene, implying that lateral sediment addition is significant in this part of the basin. New geochemical data and existing literature provide evidence for a hydrothermal source of sediment in the southern part of the Panama Basin and for downslope transport from the top of the Carnegie Ridge. The compilation of core records suggests that sediment focusing is spatially and temporally variable in the EEP. During oxygen isotope stage 2 (OIS 2, from 13-27 ka BP), focusing appears even higher compared to the Holocene at most sites, similar to earlier findings in the eastern and central equatorial Pacific. The magnitude of the glacial increase in focusing factors, however, is strongly dependent on the accuracy of age models. We offer two possible explanations for the increase in glacial focusing compared to the Holocene. The first one is that the apparent increase in lateral sediment redistribution is partly or even largely an artifact of insufficient age control in the EEP, while the second explanation, which assumes that the observed increase is real, involves enhanced deep sea tidal current flow during periods of low sea level stand.

Absolute abundances of benthic foraminifers and stable isotopes from the Alvin dives 3709-3712

The presence of gas hydrates on the Blake Ridge diapir, northeastern Atlantic Ocean, offers an opportunity to study the impact of methane seepage on the ecology and geochemistry of benthic foraminifera in the late Holocene. Three push cores, covering a time span of ~ 1000 yrs, were retrieved from three distinct microhabitats at the top of the diapir at a water depth of ~ 2150 m: (i) sediments away from seepage (control core), (ii) sediments overlain by clusters of methanotrophic and thiotrophic bivalves, and (iii) chemoautotrophic microbial mats. The foraminiferal assemblages at the two seep sites are marked by a reduction in benthic foraminiferal species diversity, coupled with a near-absence of agglutinated species. However, an opportunistic population rise in CH4- or H2S-tolerant calcareous species (e.g., Globocassidulina subglobosa and Cassidulina laevigata) that utilize the abundant trophic resources at the seeps has led to an increase in the overall assemblage density there. The delta18O and delta13C values of three species of benthic foraminifera - Gyroidinoides laevigatus, Globocassidulina subglobosa, and Uvigerina peregrina - and the planktonic species Globorotalia menardii were acquired from all three cores. The benthic species from methane seeps yield delta13C values of 0.1 to - 4.2 (per mil VPDB), that are distinctly more 13C-depleted relative to the delta13C of 0.4 to - 1.0 (per mil VPDB) at the control (off seep) site. The species from a mussel-bed site exhibit more negative delta13C values than those from microbial mats, possibly reflecting different food sources and higher rate of anaerobic oxidation of methane. The positive delta13C values in the paired planktonic species suggest that authigenic carbonate precipitation did not overprint the observed 13C depletions. Hence the probable cause of negative delta13C of benthic foraminifera is primary calcification from Dissolved Inorganic Carbon (DIC) containing mixed carbon fractions from (a) highly 13C-depleted, microbially-oxidized methane and (b) a seawater source.

Observation of manganese deposits made during the 1936 transect of C/S Lord Kelvin through the Northern Atlantic Ocean

In May and June 1936 Dr. C. S. Piggot of the Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Washington, took a series of 11 deep-sea cores in the North Atlantic Ocean between the Newfoundland banks and the banks off the Irish coast. These cores were taken from the Western Union Telegraph Co.'s cable ship Lord Kelvin with the explosive type of sounding device which Dr. Piggot designed. All but two of these cores (Nos. 8 and 11) are more than 2.43 meters (8 feet) long, and all contain ample material for study. Of the two short cores, No. 8 was taken from the top of the Faraday Hills, as that part of the mid-Atlantic ridge is known, where the material is closely packed and more sandy and consequently more resistant; No. 11 came from a locality where the apparatus apparently landed on volcanic rock that may be part of a submarine lava flow.