Seedling survival and growth of three ectomycorrhizal caesalpiniaceous tree species in a Central African rain forest

Tree recruitment is determined in part by the survivorship and growth of seedlings. Two seedling cohorts of the three most abundant caesalpiniaceous species forming groves at Korup, Cameroon, were followed from 1995/1997 to 2002, to investigate why Microberlinia bisulcata, the most abundant species, currently has very few recruits compared with Tetraberlinia korupensis and T. bifoliolata. Numbers of seedlings dying, and the heights and leaf numbers of survivors, were recorded on 30 occasions. Survivorship after 2.5 y was 30% for M. bisulcata and 59% for the similar Tetraberlinia spp. together. After 7 y the corresponding values were 4 and 21%. Growth of all species was slow for the first 4 y; but survivors of T. korupensis became 63% taller, as the other species stagnated, by 7 y. The poor recruitment of M. bisulcata was the result of its very low seedling survival. Within species, the tallest seedlings of M. bisulcata and T. bifoliolata, but medium-height ones of T. korupensis, survived longest. This was likely due to higher root allocation in T. korupensis. Seedling dynamics of M. bisulcata and T. korupensis over 7 y accorded well with relative abundances of adult trees; T. bifoliolata is predicted to recruit later.

Gluema korupensis (Sapotaceae), a new tree species from Korup National Park, Cameroon

Gluema korupensis Burgt (Sapotaceae), a new species from the southern part of Korup National Park in Cameroon, is described and illustrated. In total 176 trees 2 25 cm in stem diam. were found. The tree from which the holotype was collected was 42 m high and 125 cm in diam.; the largest tree was 238 cm in diam. The seeds are dispersed ballistically and sometimes by water

Will Whole-Tree Harvest of Jack Pine (Pinus banksiana) deplete soil nutrients in low-productivity sand soils?

In 2009 and 2010 a study was conducted on the Hiawatha National Forest (HNF) to determine if whole-tree harvest (WTH) of jack pine would deplete the soil nutrients in the very coarse-textured Rubicon soil. WTH is restricted on Rubicon sand in order to preserve the soil fertility, but the increasing construction of biomass-fueled power plants is expected to increase the demand for forest biomass. The specific objectives of this study were to estimate biomass and nutrient content of above- and below-ground tree components in mature jack pine (Pinus banksiana) stands growing on a coarse-textured, low-productivity soil, determine pools of total C and N and exchangeable soil cations in Rubicon sand, and to compare the possible impacts of conventional stem-only harvest (CH) and WTH on soil nutrient pools and the implications for productivity of subsequent rotations. Four even-aged jack pine stands on Rubicon soil were studied. Allometric equations were used to estimate above-ground biomass and nutrients, and soil samples from each stand were taken for physical and chemical analysis. Results indicate that WTH will result in cation deficits in all stands, with exceptionally large Ca deficits occurring in two stands. Where a deficit does not occur, the cation surplus is small and, chemical weathering and atmospheric deposition is not anticipated to replace the removed cations. CH will result in a surplus of cations, and will likely not result in productivity declines during the first rotation. However even under CH, the surplus is small, and chemical weathering and atmospheric deposition will not supply enough cations for the second rotation.

Variation in carbon content of tropical tree species from Ghana

Most research on carbon content of trees has focused on temperate tree species with little information existing on the carbon content of tropical tree species. This study investigated the variation in carbon content of selected tropical tree species and compared carbon content of Khaya spp from two ecozones in Ghana. Allometric equations developed for mixed-plantation stands for wet evergreen forest verified the expected strong relationship between tree volumes and dbh (r2>0.93) and volume and dbh2×height (r2>0.97). Carbon concentration, wood density and carbon content differed significantly among species. Volume at age 12 ranged from 0.01 to 1.04 m3 per tree, and wood density was highly variable among species, ranging from 0.27 to 0.76 g cm-3. This suggests that species specific density data is critical for accurate conversion of volumes derived from allometric relationships into carbon contents. Significant differences in density of Khaya spp existed between the wet and moist semi-deciduous ecozones. The baseline species-level information from this study will be useful for carbon accounting and development of carbon sequestration strategies in Ghana and other tropical African countries.

The long-term effects of whole-tree harvest at final felling on soil properties in a Norway Spruce (Picea Abies (L) Karst.) Stand

Increased demand for forest-derived biomass has resulted in changes in harvest intensities in Finland. Conventional stem-only harvest (CH) has to some extent been replaced with whole-tree harvest (WTH). The latter involves a greater removal of nutrients from the forest ecosystem, as all the above ground biomass is exported from the site. This has raised concerns that WTH could result in large changes in the nutrient dynamics of a forest stand and could eventually lower its site productivity. Little empirical data exists to support this assumption as only a limited number of studies have been conducted on the topic. A majority of these discuss the short-term effects, thus the long-term consequences remain unknown. The objective of this study was to compare differences in soil properties after CH and WTH in a fertile Norway spruce (Picea abies (L) Karst.) stand in Southern Finland. The site was clear-felled in August 2000 and spruce seedlings were planted in the following summer. Soil sampling in the form of systematic randomized sampling was carried out in May 2011. Changes in base saturation, cation exchange capacity, elemental pools (total and exchangeable) and acidity were studied in both organic and mineral horizons. The results indicate that WTH lowered effective cation exchange capacity and base saturation particularly in the humus layer. The pools of exchangeable Al and Fe were increased in the humus layer, whereas the amount of exchangeable Ca decreased in both layers. WTH also resulted in lower Ca/Al-ratios across the sampled layers. Treatment did not have a significant effect on pH, total pools of elements or on the C/N-ratio of the soil. The results suggest that although the stand possesses significant pools of nutrients at present, WTH, if continued, could have long-term effects on site productivity.

Towards greater accuracy in individual-tree mortality regression

Background mortality is an essential component of any forest growth and yield model. Forecasts of mortality contribute largely to the variability and accuracy of model predictions at the tree, stand and forest level. In the present study, I implement and evaluate state-of-the-art techniques to increase the accuracy of individual tree mortality models, similar to those used in many of the current variants of the Forest Vegetation Simulator, using data from North Idaho and Montana. The first technique addresses methods to correct for bias induced by measurement error typically present in competition variables. The second implements survival regression and evaluates its performance against the traditional logistic regression approach. I selected the regression calibration (RC) algorithm as a good candidate for addressing the measurement error problem. Two logistic regression models for each species were fitted, one ignoring the measurement error, which is the “naïve” approach, and the other applying RC. The models fitted with RC outperformed the naïve models in terms of discrimination when the competition variable was found to be statistically significant. The effect of RC was more obvious where measurement error variance was large and for more shade-intolerant species. The process of model fitting and variable selection revealed that past emphasis on DBH as a predictor variable for mortality, while producing models with strong metrics of fit, may make models less generalizable. The evaluation of the error variance estimator developed by Stage and Wykoff (1998), and core to the implementation of RC, in different spatial patterns and diameter distributions, revealed that the Stage and Wykoff estimate notably overestimated the true variance in all simulated stands, but those that are clustered. Results show a systematic bias even when all the assumptions made by the authors are guaranteed. I argue that this is the result of the Poisson-based estimate ignoring the overlapping area of potential plots around a tree. Effects, especially in the application phase, of the variance estimate justify suggested future efforts of improving the accuracy of the variance estimate. The second technique implemented and evaluated is a survival regression model that accounts for the time dependent nature of variables, such as diameter and competition variables, and the interval-censored nature of data collected from remeasured plots. The performance of the model is compared with the traditional logistic regression model as a tool to predict individual tree mortality. Validation of both approaches shows that the survival regression approach discriminates better between dead and alive trees for all species. In conclusion, I showed that the proposed techniques do increase the accuracy of individual tree mortality models, and are a promising first step towards the next generation of background mortality models. I have also identified the next steps to undertake in order to advance mortality models further.

UNDERSTANDING FARMERS’ PERCEPTIONS AND THE EFFECTS OF SHEA TREE Vitellaria paradoxa DISTRIBUTION IN AGROFORESTRY PARKLANDS OF THE UPPER WEST REGION, GHANA

Agroforestry parklands represent a vast majority of the agricultural landscape under subsistent-oriented farming in semi-arid West Africa. Parklands are characterized by the growth of well- maintained trees (e.g., shea) on cultivated fields as a result of both environmental and human influences. Shea (Vitellaria paradoxa) provides a cultural and economic benefit to the local people of Ghana, especially women. Periods between traditional fallow rotation systems have reduced recently due to agricultural development and a demand for higher production. As a result, shea trees, which regenerate during fallow periods, has decreased over the landscape. The aim of this study was to determine beneficial spatial distributions of V. paradoxa to maintain high yields of staple crops, and how management of V. paradoxa will differ between male and female farmers as a result of farmer based needs and use of shea. Vegetation growth and grain yield of maize (Zea mays) associated with individual trees, clumped trees, and open fields were measured. Soil moisture and light availability were also measured to determine how V. paradoxa affected resource availability of maize in either clumped or scattered distributions of V. paradoxa. As expected, light availability increased as measurement locations moved farther away from all trees. However, soil moisture was actually greater under trees in clumps than under individual trees. Maize stalk height and cob length showed no difference between clumped and single trees at each measurement location. Grain yield per plot and per cob increased as measurement locations moved farther from single trees, but was actually greater near clumped trees that in the open field subplots. Cob length and maize stalk height increased with greater light availability, but grain yield per cob or per plot showed no relationship with light, but were not affected by soil moisture. Conversely, grain yield increased with increasing soil moisture, but had no relationship with light availability. Initial farming capital is the largest constraint to female farmers; therefore the collection of shea can help provide women with added income that could meet their specific farming needs. Our data indicate that overall effects of maintaining clumped distributions of V. paradoxa provided beneficial microclimates for staple crops when compared to single trees. It is recommended that male and female farmers allow shea to grow in clumped spatial distributions rather than maintaining scattered, individual trees.

Buttress form of the central African rain forest tree Microberlinia bisulcata, and its possible role in nutrient acquisition

Buttressing is a trait special to tropical trees but explanations for its occurrence remain inconclusive. The two main hypotheses are that they provide structural support and/or promote nutrient acquisition. Studies of the first are common but the second has received much less attention. Architectural measurements were made on adult and juvenile trees of the ectomycorrhizal species Microberlinia bisulcata, in Korup (Cameroon). Buttressing on this species is highly distinctive with strong lateral extension of surface roots of the juveniles leading to a mature buttress system of a shallow spreading form on adults. This contrasts with more vertical buttresses, closer to the stem, found on many other tropical tree species. No clear relationship between main buttress and large branch distribution was found. Whilst this does not argue against the essential structural role of buttresses for these very large tropical trees, the form on M. bisulcata does suggest a likely second role, that of aiding nutrient acquisition. At the Korup site, with its deep sandy soils of very low phosphorus status, and where most nutrient cycling takes place in a thin surface layer of fine roots and mycorrhizas, it appears that buttress form could develop from soil-surface root exploration for nutrients by juvenile trees. It may accordingly allow M. bisulcata to attain the higher greater competitive ability, faster growth rate, and maximum tree size that it does compared with other co-occurring tree species. For sites across the tropics in general, the degree of shallowness and spatial extension of buttresses of the dominant species is hypothesized to increase with decreasing nutrient availability.

Plurality of tree species responses to drought perturbation in Bornean tropical rain forest

Drought perturbation driven by the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is a principal stochastic variable determining the dynamics of lowland rain forest in S.E. Asia. Mortality, recruitment and stem growth rates at Danum in Sabah (Malaysian Borneo) were recorded in two 4-ha plots (trees ≥ 10 cm gbh) for two periods, 1986–1996 and 1996–2001. Mortality and growth were also recorded in a sample of subplots for small trees (10 to <50 cm gbh) in two sub-periods, 1996–1999 and 1999–2001. Dynamics variables were employed to build indices of drought response for each of the 34 most abundant plot-level species (22 at the subplot level), these being interval-weighted percentage changes between periods and sub-periods. A significant yet complex effect of the strong 1997/1998 drought at the forest community level was shown by randomization procedures followed by multiple hypothesis testing. Despite a general resistance of the forest to drought, large and significant differences in short-term responses were apparent for several species. Using a diagrammatic form of stability analysis, different species showed immediate or lagged effects, high or low degrees of resilience or even oscillatory dynamics. In the context of the local topographic gradient, species’ responses define the newly termed perturbation response niche. The largest responses, particularly for recruitment and growth, were among the small trees, many of which are members of understorey taxa. The results bring with them a novel approach to understanding community dynamics: the kaleidoscopic complexity of idiosyncratic responses to stochastic perturbations suggests that plurality, rather than neutrality, of responses may be essential to understanding these tropical forests. The basis to the various responses lies with the mechanisms of tree-soil water relations which are physiologically predictable: the timing and intensity of the next drought, however, is not. To date, environmental stochasticity has been insufficiently incorporated into models of tropical forest dynamics, a step that might considerably improve the reality of theories about these globally important ecosystems.