TBX3-Mutationsanalysen und Konstruktion einer Zelllinie für TBX2-Inhibitorscreenings

Die nahe verwandten T-box Transkriptionsfaktoren TBX2 und TBX3 werden in zahlreichen humanen Krebsarten überexprimiert, insbesondere in Brustkrebs und Melanomen. Die Überexpression von TBX2 und TBX3 hat verschiedene zelluläre Effekte, darunter die Unterdrückung der Seneszenz, die Förderung der Epithelialen-Mesenchymalen Transition sowie invasive Zellmotilität. Im Gegensatz dazu führt ein Funktionsverlust von TBX3 und der meisten anderen humanen T-box-Gene zu haploinsuffizienten Entwicklungsdefekten. Durch Sequenzierung des Exoms von Brustkrebsproben identifizierten Stephens et al. fünf verschiedene Mutationen in TBX3, welche allesamt die DNA-bindende T-box-Domäne betrafen. Die In-Frame-Deletion N212delN wurde zweimal gefunden. Aus der Anhäufung der Mutationen innerhalb der T-box-Domäne wurde geschlossen, dass TBX3 bei Brustkrebs ein Treibergen ist. Da Mutationen innerhalb der T-box-Domäne im Allgemeinen zu einem Funktionsverlust führen, aber die onkogene Aktivität von TBX3 meist auf eine Überexpression zurückzuführen ist, wurden die potentiellen Treibermutationen hinsichtlich einer verminderten oder gesteigerten TBX3-Funktion geprüft. Getestet wurden zwei In-Frame Deletionen, eine Missense- sowie eine Frameshift-Mutante bezüglich der DNA-Bindung in vitro und der Zielgen-Repression in Zellkultur. Zusätzlich wurde eine in silico Analyse der im The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) gelisteten somatischen TBX-Brustkrebsmutationen durchgeführt. Sowohl die experimentelle als auch die in silico Analyse zeigten, dass die untersuchten Mutationen vorwiegend zum Verlust der TBX3-Funktion führen. Um den Mechanismus der Genrepression durch TBX3 besser zu verstehen, wurden weitere TBX3-Mutanten bezüglich ihrer Wirkung auf die p21-Promotoraktivität (p21-Luc-Reporter und endogene p21-Expression) analysiert. Wildtypische p21-Luc-Repression zeigten die zwei Mutationen S674A (Phosphorylierung) und D275K (SUMOylierung), welche posttranslationale Modifikationen verhindern, sowie die Interaktion mit dem Tumorsuppressor Rb1 unterbindende M302A/V304A-Mutation. Erstaunlicherweise war die endogene p21-Repression dieser Mutanten stärker als die des wildtypischen TBX3-Proteins. Alle drei Mutationen führten zu einer Stabilisierung des TBX3-Proteins. Die ursprünglich in Patienten mit Ulna-Mamma Syndrom identifizierte, DNA-bindungsdefekte Y149S-Mutante konnte weder p21-Luc noch endogenes p21 reprimieren. Mutationen in potentiellen Interaktionsdomänen für die Bindung der Co-Repressoren Groucho und C-terminalem Bindeprotein zeigten sowohl auf p21-Luc als auch auf endogenes p21-Gen wildtypische Repressoraktivität, so dass diese Co-Repressoren in COS-7-Zellen wahrscheinlich nicht an der Repression dieses Gens beteiligt sind. Da TBX2 und TBX3 interessante Ziele zur direkten Krebsbekämpfung darstellen, sollte ein zelluläres Reportersystem zur Identifikation TBX2-inhibierender, pharmakologisch aktiver Substanzen etabliert werden. Dazu sollte eine stabile Zelllinie mit vom p21-Promotor reguliertem d2EGFP-Reporter und Doxyzyklin-induzierbarem TBX2-Protein erzeugt werden, da ektopische Expression von TBX2 genetische Instabilität und Toxizität induzieren kann. In dieser Zelllinie sollte die TBX2-Expression zur Reduktion der d2EGFP-Fluoreszenz führen. Zur Erzeugung der Zelllinie wurden die folgenden drei Konstrukte Schritt-für-Schritt stabil in das Genom der Zielzelllinie COS-7 integriert: pEF1alpha-Tet3G, pTRE3G-TBX2 und p21-d2EGFP. Während die Herstellung der doppelt stabilen COS-7-Zelllinie gelang, scheiterte die Herstellung der dreifach stabilen Zelllinie.

Medienfreiheit in der Demokratiemessung : ein Konzeptualisierungsvorschlag und Evaluation einschlägiger Indizes

Ziel dieser Arbeit ist es, einen Beitrag zur Klärung des Zusammenhangs zwischen Medienfreiheit und Demokratie, der zwar weitläufig postuliert, aber dennoch lediglich in geringem Maße erforscht ist, zu leisten und insbesondere die konzeptionelle Rückbindung von Medienfreiheit an die Demokratietheorie zu verbessern. Es wird davon ausgegangen, dass eine Demokratie ohne die Verwirklichung von Medienfreiheit nicht funktionieren kann. Medienfreiheit wird daher als ein Merkmal von Demokratie aufgefasst. Im ersten Teil der Arbeit wird, ausgehend von Larry Diamonds Konzeption einer liberalen Demokratie, eine konkrete Definition und Konzeptualisierung von Medienfreiheit herausgearbeitet. Damit wird ein Maßstab formuliert, der im Folgenden dazu dient existierende Messungen von Medienfreiheit auf ihren konzeptuellen Gehalt hin zu überprüfen. Im zweiten Teil werden existierende Indizes bezüglich ihrer Messung von Medienfreiheit evaluiert. Betrachtet werden hierbei sowohl zwei Demokratieindizes (der Index Politische Rechte und Bürgerliche Freiheiten von Freedom House sowie der Index Liberale Demokratie aus dem Varieties of Democracy-Projekt) als auch zwei Indizes, die explizit Medienfreiheit messen (der Index Pressefreiheit von Freedom House sowie die Rangliste der Pressefreiheit von Reporter ohne Grenzen).

Control of Steroid 21-oic Acid Synthesis by Peroxisome Proliferator-activated Receptor and Role of the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis

A previous study identified the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPARalpha) activation biomarkers 21-steroid carboxylic acids 11beta-hydroxy-3,20-dioxopregn-4-en-21-oic acid (HDOPA) and 11beta,20-dihydroxy-3-oxo-pregn-4-en-21-oic acid (DHOPA). In the present study, the molecular mechanism and the metabolic pathway of their production were determined. The PPARalpha-specific time-dependent increases in HDOPA and 20alpha-DHOPA paralleled the development of adrenal cortex hyperplasia, hypercortisolism, and spleen atrophy, which was attenuated in adrenalectomized mice. Wy-14,643 activation of PPARalpha induced hepatic FGF21, which caused increased neuropeptide Y and agouti-related protein mRNAs in the hypothalamus, stimulation of the agouti-related protein/neuropeptide Y neurons, and activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, resulting in increased adrenal cortex hyperplasia and corticosterone production, revealing a link between PPARalpha and the HPA axis in controlling energy homeostasis and immune regulation. Corticosterone was demonstrated as the precursor of 21-carboxylic acids both in vivo and in vitro. Under PPARalpha activation, the classic reductive metabolic pathway of corticosterone was suppressed, whereas an alternative oxidative pathway was uncovered that leads to the sequential oxidation on carbon 21 resulting in HDOPA. The latter was then reduced to the end product 20alpha-DHOPA. Hepatic cytochromes P450, aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH3A2), and 21-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (AKR1C18) were found to be involved in this pathway. Activation of PPARalpha resulted in the induction of Aldh3a2 and Akr1c18, both of which were confirmed as target genes through introduction of promoter luciferase reporter constructs into mouse livers in vivo. This study underscores the power of mass spectrometry-based metabolomics combined with genomic and physiologic analyses in identifying downstream metabolic biomarkers and the corresponding upstream molecular mechanisms.

Glucocorticoids protect renal mesangial cells from apoptosis by increasing cellular sphingosine-1-phosphate

Neutral ceramidase (NCDase) and sphingosine kinases (SphKs) are key enzymes regulating cellular sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) levels. In this study we found that stress factor-induced apoptosis of rat renal mesangial cells was significantly reduced by dexamethasone treatment. Concomitantly, dexamethasone increased cellular S1P levels, suggesting an activation of sphingolipid-metabolizing enzymes. The cell-protective effect of glucocorticoids was reversed by a SphK inhibitor, was completely absent in SphK1-deficient cells, and was associated with upregulated mRNA and protein expression of NCDase and SphK1. Additionally, in vivo experiments in mice showed that dexamethasone also upregulated SphK1 mRNA and activity, and NCDase protein expression in the kidney. Fragments (2285, 1724, and 1126 bp) of the rat NCDase promoter linked to a luciferase reporter were transfected into rat kidney fibroblasts and mesangial cells. There was enhanced NCDase promoter activity upon glucocorticoids treatment that was abolished by the glucocorticoid receptor antagonist RU-486. Single and double mutations of the two putative glucocorticoid response element sites within the promoter reduced the dexamethasone effect, suggesting that both glucocorticoid response elements are functionally active and required for induction. Our study shows that glucocorticoids exert a protective effect on stress-induced mesangial cell apoptosis in vitro and in vivo by upregulating NCDase and SphK1 expression and activity, resulting in enhanced levels of the protective lipid second messenger S1P.

CLEC5A (MDL-1) is a novel PU.1 transcriptional target during myeloid differentiation

C-type lectin domain family 5, member A (CLEC5A), also known as myeloid DNAX activation protein 12 (DAP12)-associating lectin-1 (MDL-1), is a cell surface receptor strongly associated with the activation and differentiation of myeloid cells. CLEC5A associates with its adaptor protein DAP12 to activate a signaling cascade resulting in activation of downstream kinases in inflammatory responses. Currently, little is known about the transcriptional regulation of CLEC5A. We identified CLEC5A as one of the most highly induced genes in a microarray gene profiling experiment of PU.1 restored myeloid PU.1-null cells. We further report that CLEC5A expression is significantly reduced in several myeloid differentiation models upon PU.1 inhibition during monocyte/macrophage or granulocyte differentiation. In addition, CLEC5A mRNA expression was significantly lower in primary acute myeloid leukemia (AML) patient samples than in macrophages and granulocytes from healthy donors. Moreover, we found activation of a CLEC5A promoter reporter by PU.1 as well as in vivo binding of PU.1 to the CLEC5A promoter. Our findings indicate that CLEC5A expression in monocyte/macrophage and granulocytes is regulated by PU.1.

Rapid fusion and syncytium formation of heterologous cells upon expression of the FGFRL1 receptor

The fusion of mammalian cells into syncytia is a developmental process that is tightly restricted to a limited subset of cells. Besides gamete and placental trophoblast fusion, only macrophages and myogenic stem cells fuse into multinucleated syncytia. In contrast to viral cell fusion, which is mediated by fusogenic glycoproteins that actively merge membranes, mammalian cell fusion is poorly understood at the molecular level. A variety of mammalian transmembrane proteins, among them many of the immunoglobulin superfamily, have been implicated in cell-cell fusion, but none has been shown to actively fuse cells in vitro. Here we report that the FGFRL1 receptor, which is up-regulated during the differentiation of myoblasts into myotubes, fuses cultured cells into large, multinucleated syncytia. We used luciferase and GFP-based reporter assays to confirm cytoplasmic mixing and to identify the fusion inducing domain of FGFRL1. These assays revealed that Ig-like domain III and the transmembrane domain are both necessary and sufficient to rapidly fuse CHO cells into multinucleated syncytia comprising several hundred nuclei. Moreover, FGFRL1 also fused HEK293 and HeLa cells with untransfected CHO cells. Our data show that FGFRL1 is the first mammalian protein that is capable of inducing syncytium formation of heterologous cells in vitro.

The transcriptional regulator megakaryoblastic leukemia-1 mediates serum response factor-independent activation of tenascin-C transcription by mechanical stress

The extracellular matrix protein tenascin-C (TNC) is up-regulated in processes influenced by mechanical stress, such as inflammation, tissue remodeling, wound healing, and tumorigenesis. Cyclic strain-induced TNC expression depends on RhoA-actin signaling, the pathway that regulates transcriptional activity of serum response factor (SRF) by its coactivator megakaryoblastic leukemia-1 (MKL1). Therefore, we tested whether MKL1 controls TNC transcription. We demonstrate that overexpression of MKL1 strongly induces TNC expression in mouse NIH3T3 fibroblasts and normal HC11 and transformed 4T1 mammary epithelial cells. Part of the induction was dependant on SRF and a newly identified atypical CArG box in the TNC promoter. Another part was independent of SRF but required the SAP domain of MKL1. An MKL1 mutant incapable of binding to SRF still strongly induced TNC, while induction of the SRF target c-fos was abolished. Cyclic strain failed to induce TNC in MKL1-deficient but not in SRF-deficient fibroblasts, and strain-induced TNC expression strongly depended on the SAP domain of MKL1. Promoter-reporter and chromatin immunoprecipitation experiments unraveled a SAP-dependent, SRF-independent interaction of MKL1 with the proximal promoter region of TNC, attributing for the first time a functional role to the SAP domain of MKL1 in regulating gene expression.

A novel steroidal antiandrogen targeting wild type and mutant androgen receptors

Prostate cancer (PCa) progression is enhanced by androgen and treatment with antiandrogens represents an alternative to castration. While patients initially respond favorably to androgen ablation therapy, most experience a relapse of the disease within 1-2 years by expressing androgen receptor (AR) mutants. Such mutations, indeed, promote unfavorable agonistic behavior from classical antagonists. Here, we have synthesized and screened 37 novel compounds derived from dihydrotestosterone (DHT), cyanolutamide and hydroxyflutamide. These derivatives were tested for their potential antagonistic activity using a luciferase reporter gene assay and binding properties were determined for wild type (WT) and mutant ARs (T877A, W741C, W741L, H874Y). In the absence and presence of antiandrogens, androgen dependent cellular proliferation and prostate specific antigen (PSA) expression were assayed in the prostate cancer cell line LNCaP by crystal violet, real time PCR and by Western blots. Also, cellular proliferation and PSA expression were assayed in 22Rv1. A novel compound RB346, derived from DHT, was found to be an antagonist for all tested AR forms, preventing DHT induced proliferation and PSA expression in LNCaP and 22Rv1 cells. RB346 displayed no agonistic activity, in contrast to the non-steroidal antiandrogen bicalutamide (Casodex) with unfavorable agonistic activity for W741L-AR. Additionally, RB346 has a slightly higher binding affinity for WT-AR, T877A-AR and H874Y-AR than bicalutamide. Thus, RB346 is the first potent steroidal antiandrogen with efficacy for WT and various AR mutants.

Epigenetic regulation of somatic angiotensin-converting enzyme by DNA methylation and histone acetylation

Somatic angiotensin-converting enzyme (sACE) is crucial in cardiovascular homeostasis and displays a tissue-specific profile. Epigenetic patterns modulate genes expression and their alterations were implied in pathologies including hypertension. However, the influence of DNA methylation and chromatin condensation state on the expression of sACE is unknown. We examined whether such epigenetic mechanisms could participate in the control of sACE expression in vitro and in vivo. We identified two CpG islands in the human ace-1 gene 3 kb proximal promoter region. Their methylation abolished the luciferase activity of ace-1 promoter/reporter constructs transfected into human liver (HepG2), colon (HT29), microvascular endothelial (HMEC-1) and lung (SUT) cell lines (p < 0.001). Bisulphite sequencing revealed a cell-type specific basal methylation pattern of the ace-1 gene -1,466/+25 region. As assessed by RT-qPCR, inhibition of DNA methylation by 5-aza-2'-deoxycytidine and/or of histone deacetylation by trichostatin A highly stimulated sACE mRNA expression cell-type specifically (p < 0.001 vs. vehicle treated cells). In the rat, in vivo 5-aza-cytidine injections demethylated the ace-1 promoter and increased sACE mRNA expression in the lungs and liver (p = 0.05), but not in the kidney. In conclusion, the expression level of somatic ACE is modulated by CpG-methylation and histone deacetylases inhibition. The basal methylation pattern of the promoter of the ace-1 gene is cell-type specific and correlates to sACE transcription. DNMT inhibition is associated with altered methylation of the ace-1 promoter and a cell-type and tissue-specific increase of sACE mRNA levels. This study indicates a strong influence of epigenetic mechanisms on sACE expression.

N-imidazolebenzyl-histidine substitution in somatostatin and in its octapeptide analogue modulates receptor selectivity and function

Despite 3 decades of focused chemical, biological, structural, and clinical developments, unusual properties of somatostatin (SRIF, 1) analogues are still being uncovered. Here we report the unexpected functional properties of 1 and the octapeptide cyclo(3-14)H-Cys-Phe-Phe-Trp(8)-Lys-Thr-Phe-Cys-OH (somatostatin numbering; OLT-8, 9) substituted by imBzl-l- or -d-His at position 8. These analogues were tested for their binding affinity to the five human somatostatin receptors (sst(1-5)), as well as for their functional properties (or functionalities) in an sst(3) internalization assay and in an sst(3) luciferase reporter gene assay. While substitution of Trp(8) in somatostatin by imBzl-l- or -d-His(8) results in sst(3) selectivity, substitution of Trp(8) in the octapeptide 9 by imBzl-l- or -d-His(8) results in loss of binding affinity for sst(1,2,4,5) and a radical functional switch from agonist to antagonist.

miR-21 functionally interacts with the 3'UTR of chemokine CCL20 and down-regulates CCL20 expression in miR-21 transfected colorectal cancer cells

As deregulation of miRNAs and chemokine CCL20 was shown to play a role in colorectal cancer (CRC) pathogenesis, we analyzed the functional interactions of candidate miRNAs with CCL20 mRNA. After target prediction software programs indicated a role for miR-21 in CCL20 regulation, we applied the luciferase reporter assay system to demonstrate that miR-21 functionally interacts with the 3'UTR of CCL20 mRNA and down-regulates CCL20 in miR-21 mimic transfected CRC cell lines (Caco-2, SW480 and SW620). Thus, regulation of CCL20 expression by miR-21 might be a regulatory mechanism involved in progression of CRC.

MicroRNA-29b is involved in the Src-ID1 signaling pathway and is dysregulated in human lung adenocarcinoma

The c-Src kinase regulates cancer cell invasion through inhibitor of DNA binding/differentiation 1 (ID1). Src and ID1 are frequently overexpressed in human lung adenocarcinoma. The current study aimed at identifying microRNAs (miRNAs) involved in the Src-ID1 signaling in lung cancer. Incubation of lung cancer cells with the Src inhibitor saracatinib led to the upregulation of several miRNAs including miR-29b, which was the most highly upregulated miRNA with predicted binding to the ID1 3'-untranslated region (UTR). Luciferase reporter assays confirmed direct binding of miR-29b to the ID1 3'-UTR. Expression of miR-29b suppressed ID1 levels and significantly reduced migration and invasion. Expression of antisense-miR-29b (anti-miR-29b), on the other hand, enhanced ID1 mRNA and protein levels, and significantly increased lung cancer cell migration and invasion, a hallmark of the Src-ID1 pathway. The ectopic expression of ID1 in miR-29b-overexpressing cells was able to rescue the migratory potential of these cells. Both, anti-miR-29b and ID1 overexpression diminished the effects of the Src inhibitors saracatinib and dasatinib on migration and invasion. Saracatinib and dasatinib decreased c-Myc transcriptional repression on miR-29b and led to increased ID1 protein levels, whereas forced expression of c-Myc repressed miR-29b and induced ID1. In agreement, we showed direct recruitment of c-Myc to the miR-29b promoter. miR-29b was significantly downregulated in primary lung adenocarcinoma samples compared with matched alveolar lung tissue, and miR-29b expression was a significant prognostic factor for patient outcome. These results suggest that miR-29b is involved in the Src-ID1 signaling pathway, is dysregulated in lung adenocarcinoma and is a potential predictive marker for Src kinase inhibitors.

Alba-domain proteins of Trypanosoma brucei are cytoplasmic RNA-binding proteins that interact with the translation machinery

Trypanosoma brucei and related pathogens transcribe most genes as polycistronic arrays that are subsequently processed into monocistronic mRNAs. Expression is frequently regulated post-transcriptionally by cis-acting elements in the untranslated regions (UTRs). GPEET and EP procyclins are the major surface proteins of procyclic (insect midgut) forms of T. brucei. Three regulatory elements common to the 3' UTRs of both mRNAs regulate mRNA turnover and translation. The glycerol-responsive element (GRE) is unique to the GPEET 3' UTR and regulates its expression independently from EP. A synthetic RNA encompassing the GRE showed robust sequence-specific interactions with cytoplasmic proteins in electromobility shift assays. This, combined with column chromatography, led to the identification of 3 Alba-domain proteins. RNAi against Alba3 caused a growth phenotype and reduced the levels of Alba1 and Alba2 proteins, indicative of interactions between family members. Tandem-affinity purification and co-immunoprecipitation verified these interactions and also identified Alba4 in sub-stoichiometric amounts. Alba proteins are cytoplasmic and are recruited to starvation granules together with poly(A) RNA. Concomitant depletion of all four Alba proteins by RNAi specifically reduced translation of a reporter transcript flanked by the GPEET 3' UTR. Pulldown of tagged Alba proteins confirmed interactions with poly(A) binding proteins, ribosomal protein P0 and, in the case of Alba3, the cap-binding protein eIF4E4. In addition, Alba2 and Alba3 partially cosediment with polyribosomes in sucrose gradients. Alba-domain proteins seem to have exhibited great functional plasticity in the course of evolution. First identified as DNA-binding proteins in Archaea, then in association with nuclear RNase MRP/P in yeast and mammalian cells, they were recently described as components of a translationally silent complex containing stage-regulated mRNAs in Plasmodium. Our results are also consistent with stage-specific regulation of translation in trypanosomes, but most likely in the context of initiation.

How Much Is Enough? an Analysis of the 5' Nontranslated Region of the Deformed Wing Virus in Honeybees

Honeybees are an essential component of today¿s agricultural system because of their role as pollinators. However, viruses, including a member of the Picornavirales order known commonly as Deformed Wing Virus (DWV), are compromising the health of honeybee colonies. Many picornaviruses, such as poliovirus, have been studied in depth because of their relation to human disease, but also because of their use of an Internal Ribosome Entry Site (IRES) to initiate translation. The primary goal of this thesis was to determine if the 5¿ Non-Translated Region (NTR) of Deformed Wing Virus (DWV) functions as an IRES. A secondary goal was to determine if there are specific parts of that 5¿ NTR that are important to IRES function. Six plasmids were constructed by inserting three different sections of the 5¿ NTR of DWV, in both sense and antisense directions, between two reporter genes. These plasmids, along with several control plasmids, were transfected into Sf9 cells, and post-transfection luciferase assays were conducted. Results were inconclusive. This could have been due to an inability of the plasmids to be expressed in Sf9 cells, an error in the construction of the plasmids, or a mechanical error in the assay procedure. At this time it appears most likely that the 5¿ NTR of DWV may be cell-type or species specific, and the next step would be to transfect the plasmids into a recently developed cultured honeybee cell line.

Leaf Asymmetry as a Developmental Constraint Imposed by Auxin-Dependent Phyllotactic Patterning

In a majority of species, leaf development is thought to proceed in a bilaterally symmetric fashion without systematic asymmetries. This is despite the left and right sides of an initiating primordium occupying niches that differ in their distance from sinks and sources of auxin. Here, we revisit an existing model of auxin transport sufficient to recreate spiral phyllotactic patterns and find previously overlooked asymmetries between auxin distribution and the centers of leaf primordia. We show that it is the direction of the phyllotactic spiral that determines the side of the leaf these asymmetries fall on. We empirically confirm the presence of an asymmetric auxin response using a DR5 reporter and observe morphological asymmetries in young leaf primordia. Notably, these morphological asymmetries persist in mature leaves, and we observe left-right asymmetries in the superficially bilaterally symmetric leaves of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) and Arabidopsis thaliana that are consistent with modeled predictions. We further demonstrate that auxin application to a single side of a leaf primordium is sufficient to recapitulate the asymmetries we observe. Our results provide a framework to study a previously overlooked developmental axis and provide insights into the developmental constraints imposed upon leaf morphology by auxin-dependent phyllotactic patterning.