Bioremediation of PAHs - Limitations and soultions

Introduction 1.1 Occurrence of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) in the environment Worldwide industrial and agricultural developments have released a large number of natural and synthetic hazardous compounds into the environment due to careless waste disposal, illegal waste dumping and accidental spills. As a result, there are numerous sites in the world that require cleanup of soils and groundwater. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are one of the major groups of these contaminants (Da Silva et al., 2003). PAHs constitute a diverse class of organic compounds consisting of two or more aromatic rings with various structural configurations (Prabhu and Phale, 2003). Being a derivative of benzene, PAHs are thermodynamically stable. In addition, these chemicals tend to adhere to particle surfaces, such as soils, because of their low water solubility and strong hydrophobicity, and this results in greater persistence under natural conditions. This persistence coupled with their potential carcinogenicity makes PAHs problematic environmental contaminants (Cerniglia, 1992; Sutherland, 1992). PAHs are widely found in high concentrations at many industrial sites, particularly those associated with petroleum, gas production and wood preserving industries (Wilson and Jones, 1993). 1.2 Remediation technologies Conventional techniques used for the remediation of soil polluted with organic contaminants include excavation of the contaminated soil and disposal to a landfill or capping - containment - of the contaminated areas of a site. These methods have some drawbacks. The first method simply moves the contamination elsewhere and may create significant risks in the excavation, handling and transport of hazardous material. Additionally, it is very difficult and increasingly expensive to find new landfill sites for the final disposal of the material. The cap and containment method is only an interim solution since the contamination remains on site, requiring monitoring and maintenance of the isolation barriers long into the future, with all the associated costs and potential liability. A better approach than these traditional methods is to completely destroy the pollutants, if possible, or transform them into harmless substances. Some technologies that have been used are high-temperature incineration and various types of chemical decomposition (for example, base-catalyzed dechlorination, UV oxidation). However, these methods have significant disadvantages, principally their technological complexity, high cost , and the lack of public acceptance. Bioremediation, on the contrast, is a promising option for the complete removal and destruction of contaminants. 1.3 Bioremediation of PAH contaminated soil & groundwater Bioremediation is the use of living organisms, primarily microorganisms, to degrade or detoxify hazardous wastes into harmless substances such as carbon dioxide, water and cell biomass Most PAHs are biodegradable unter natural conditions (Da Silva et al., 2003; Meysami and Baheri, 2003) and bioremediation for cleanup of PAH wastes has been extensively studied at both laboratory and commercial levels- It has been implemented at a number of contaminated sites, including the cleanup of the Exxon Valdez oil spill in Prince William Sound, Alaska in 1989, the Mega Borg spill off the Texas coast in 1990 and the Burgan Oil Field, Kuwait in 1994 (Purwaningsih, 2002). Different strategies for PAH bioremediation, such as in situ , ex situ or on site bioremediation were developed in recent years. In situ bioremediation is a technique that is applied to soil and groundwater at the site without removing the contaminated soil or groundwater, based on the provision of optimum conditions for microbiological contaminant breakdown.. Ex situ bioremediation of PAHs, on the other hand, is a technique applied to soil and groundwater which has been removed from the site via excavation (soil) or pumping (water). Hazardous contaminants are converted in controlled bioreactors into harmless compounds in an efficient manner. 1.4 Bioavailability of PAH in the subsurface Frequently, PAH contamination in the environment is occurs as contaminants that are sorbed onto soilparticles rather than in phase (NAPL, non aqueous phase liquids). It is known that the biodegradation rate of most PAHs sorbed onto soil is far lower than rates measured in solution cultures of microorganisms with pure solid pollutants (Alexander and Scow, 1989; Hamaker, 1972). It is generally believed that only that fraction of PAHs dissolved in the solution can be metabolized by microorganisms in soil. The amount of contaminant that can be readily taken up and degraded by microorganisms is defined as bioavailability (Bosma et al., 1997; Maier, 2000). Two phenomena have been suggested to cause the low bioavailability of PAHs in soil (Danielsson, 2000). The first one is strong adsorption of the contaminants to the soil constituents which then leads to very slow release rates of contaminants to the aqueous phase. Sorption is often well correlated with soil organic matter content (Means, 1980) and significantly reduces biodegradation (Manilal and Alexander, 1991). The second phenomenon is slow mass transfer of pollutants, such as pore diffusion in the soil aggregates or diffusion in the organic matter in the soil. The complex set of these physical, chemical and biological processes is schematically illustrated in Figure 1. As shown in Figure 1, biodegradation processes are taking place in the soil solution while diffusion processes occur in the narrow pores in and between soil aggregates (Danielsson, 2000). Seemingly contradictory studies can be found in the literature that indicate the rate and final extent of metabolism may be either lower or higher for sorbed PAHs by soil than those for pure PAHs (Van Loosdrecht et al., 1990). These contrasting results demonstrate that the bioavailability of organic contaminants sorbed onto soil is far from being well understood. Besides bioavailability, there are several other factors influencing the rate and extent of biodegradation of PAHs in soil including microbial population characteristics, physical and chemical properties of PAHs and environmental factors (temperature, moisture, pH, degree of contamination). Figure 1: Schematic diagram showing possible rate-limiting processes during bioremediation of hydrophobic organic contaminants in a contaminated soil-water system (not to scale) (Danielsson, 2000). 1.5 Increasing the bioavailability of PAH in soil Attempts to improve the biodegradation of PAHs in soil by increasing their bioavailability include the use of surfactants , solvents or solubility enhancers.. However, introduction of synthetic surfactant may result in the addition of one more pollutant. (Wang and Brusseau, 1993).A study conducted by Mulder et al. showed that the introduction of hydropropyl-ß-cyclodextrin (HPCD), a well-known PAH solubility enhancer, significantly increased the solubilization of PAHs although it did not improve the biodegradation rate of PAHs (Mulder et al., 1998), indicating that further research is required in order to develop a feasible and efficient remediation method. Enhancing the extent of PAHs mass transfer from the soil phase to the liquid might prove an efficient and environmentally low-risk alternative way of addressing the problem of slow PAH biodegradation in soil.

Approccio SEM-AVS (Simultaneously Extracted Metals-Acid Volatile Sulfides) per la valutazione del rischio ambientale dei metalli nei sedimenti della Pialassa Baiona

La Pialassa Baiona è una laguna sottoposta a diversi vincoli normativi, visto il suo inquadramento tra le aree SIC e ZPS, e soggetta a diverse sorgenti di disturbo antropico, più intense negli anni ‘50-‘70. Questa tesi si propone lo scopo di valutare il rischio associato ai metalli bivalenti presenti nei sedimenti della Pialassa Baiona attraverso tre approcci: il primo riguarda la determinazione della frazione biodisponibile dei metalli presenti nei sedimenti attraverso la determinazione dei solfuri acidi volatili (AVS) e dei metalli simultaneamente estraibili (SEM), nonché la valutazione della potenziale tossicità dei sedimenti attraverso la valutazione del rapporto molare SEM/AVS, il secondo approccio considera invece il contenuto pseudo totale dei metalli bivalenti (Cd, Cu, Ni, Pb e Zn) e il loro confronto sia con i valori tipici di fondo naturale del Mar Adriatico che con i valori guida di riferimento internazionale (Threshold Effect Level, TEL e Probable Effect Level, PEL) al fine di valutare lo stato di qualità dei sedimenti della zona d’indagine. Il terzo approccio considera l’influenza del gradiente naturale terra-mare tipico delle zone di transizione e del gradiente antropico legato alla vicinanza dell’area industriale alla Pialassa Baiona, sulla distribuzione spaziale dei metalli oggetto di questo studio. I risultati ottenuti evidenziano che l’area più prossima alla zona industriale e al contempo più lontana dall’effetto del ricambio delle acque e di dilavamento ad opera del mare, è risultata quella con livelli significativamente più elevati per la maggior parte dei metalli analizzati. Questo permette di ipotizzare un’influenza diretta delle sorgenti di inquinanti, ma anche un effetto dispersivo della circolazione. Gli AVS hanno invece evidenziato un gradiente terra-mare; ciò comporta che nelle zone più prossime all’influenza del mare si sono riscontrate concentrazioni minori di AVS. La valutazione della potenziale tossicità dei metalli in termini di rapporto SEM/AVS non ha evidenziato la presenza di siti a rischio per il biota acquatico, se non per un unico sito prossimo all’area industriale.

Speciazione del cromo nei sedimenti di una laguna costiera

Il presente lavoro di tesi ha affrontato le problematiche legate alla speciazione del cromo in particolare i rischi legati alla forma esavalente che risulta particolarmente tossica per gli organismi acquatici. Sono state svolte diverse prove per la messa appunto di una metodica standar dell’US EPA “Method 3060A” indicata per l’estrazione selettiva del Cr(VI) in campioni di sedimento e suolo. Un set di campioni provenienti da sedimenti della laguna costiera della Pialassa della Baiona sono stati analizzati per quantificare i livelli cromo environmentally available, previa dissoluzione in acqua regia, e livelli di cromo esavalente per valutare l’eventuale rischio per il biota acquatico. Sia i livelli di concentrazione di cromo environmentally available confrontati con le linee guida internazionali che i livelli di cromo e Cr(VI) paragonati ai livelli di effetto ritrovati in letteratura non mostrano un potenziale rischio per gli organismi bentonici. I bassi valori di cromo esavalente sono in accordo con le condizioni riducenti tipiche di ambienti di transizione come quello di studio dove la forma chimica del cromo predominante sembra essere quella trivalente. La metodica seguita per la determinazione del cromo esavalente ha diversi limiti rappresentati dall’azione di interferenti quali AVS, Fe(II) e materia organica naturalmente presenti nei sedimenti, per questo procede ancora la ricerca di analisi di speciazione più selettive.

Contaminanti emergenti nei suoli: il lombrico Eisenia andrei come modello sperimentale per la valutazione degli effetti biologici del bisfenolo A

Il BPA è un composto aromatico precursore di materiali plastici e additivi chimici, ed è entrato a far parte della categoria dei contaminanti che alterano il sistema endocrino con molteplici effetti negativi sulla salute umana (azione di mimesi estrogenica, alterazioni della funzione tiroidea e dei sistemi riproduttivo, nervoso ed immunitario). Nella fase produttiva industriale si hanno emissioni accidentali di BPA durante il trattamento e la lavorazione dei monomeri plastici. Piccole frazioni di BPA possono essere ingerite dall’uomo poiché la sostanza migra nel tempo dal contenitore alimentare al contenuto (es. bevanda in lattina o contenitore per microonde) soprattutto se esposto ad alte temperature. Anche il contatto con composti acidi o basici, la presenza di elevati livelli di cloruro di sodio o di oli vegetali, è in grado di provocare un incremento del rilascio di BPA dai materiali polimerici. Il BPA viene rilasciato dai biberon in policarbonato, che in molti Paesi sono stati ritirati dal commercio nel 2011, e da bottiglie di acqua riutilizzabili. Infine, la carta termica degli scontrini e delle fotocopie rilasciano BPA. Nell’adulto la tossicità del BPA sembra modesta, tuttavia l'esposizione nel feto e nel neonato può risultare deleteria. Al di là della tossicità, l'aspetto che al momento preoccupa maggiormente è l'effetto che il BPA ha anche a basse dosi sul metabolismo: diversi studi in tutto il mondo correlano questa sostanza all'incidenza di diabete, ipertensione, obesità e problemi cardiaci. L’attenzione per il BPA è piuttosto recente a livello umano, mentre è assai ridotta per la salute dell’ecosistema. Tuttavia è noto che il BPA è presente anche come contaminante dei suoli, e pur essendo stato documentato il suo bioaccumulo negli organismi vegetali, non sono disponibili informazioni precedenti relativi agli effetti del BPA sugli organismi animali del suolo, in linea con il fatto che il suolo è stato una matrice ambientale molto trascurata. Il presente lavoro di tesi quindi si pone come uno studio pilota per valutare la possibile tossicità del BPA su organismi modello che vivono in questa matrice. In questo studio è stato scelto come bioindicatore “sentinella” il lombrico Eisenia andrei, il comune verme rosso, come suggeriscono le linee guida internazionali (OECD, OCSE). I possibili effetti biologici del Bisfenolo A nei lombrichi sono stati indagati sia attraverso endpoint del ciclo vitale (accrescimento, riproduzione e mortalità), sia attraverso una batteria di biomarker (generali e specifici). Data la mancanza di osservazioni precedenti si è scelto un approccio integrato tra i parametri del ciclo vitale, in genere meno sensibili ma ecologicamente più rilevanti, e i biomarker, risposte più sensibili che possono rappresentare segnali precoci di allarme inerenti l’esposizione a contaminanti ambientali o l’effetto di questi ultimi sugli organismi indagati, ma non necessariamente predittivi sulla salute della comunità. Al momento non esistono batterie di biomarker specifiche per questa sostanza, quindi un ulteriore scopo della ricerca è stato quello di evidenziare biomarker utili ad indagare eventuali alterazioni biochimiche e funzionali nei lombrichi in risposta all’esposizione a dosi crescenti di bisfenolo A. Le risposte biologiche indagate sono: - la diminuzione della stabilità delle membrane lisosomiali, che indica una riduzione dello stato di salute generale degli organismi; - l’alterazione dell’attività degli enzimi catalasi e glutatione-S-trasferasi, indice di stress ossidativo o induzione di meccanismi di detossificazione; - la diminuzione dell’attività dell’enzima acetilcolinesterasi, la quale indica neurotossicità; - l’accumulo di lipofuscine o lipidi neutri, che è sintomo rispettivamente di stress ossidativo o alterazioni del metabolismo; - la variazione della malondialdeide, composto intermedio della perossidazione lipidica, indica un stress ossidativo in corso. Sulla base dei dati ottenuti possiamo dire che il BPA, alle concentrazioni ambientali, non costituisce un elemento di rischio ecologico per gli organismi sentinella Eisenia andrei. Alle concentrazioni più elevate (che superano quelle ambientali di almeno 10 volte) si osservano delle alterazioni sui livelli di lipidi neutri e lipofuscine che pur non essendo preoccupanti dal punto di vista ecologico sono indice di vulnerabilità, dato che si tratta di alterazioni del metabolismo in conseguenza delle quali gli animali accumulano residui normalmente degradati a livello lisosomiale. Questo accumulo nei lisosomi delle cellule del tessuto cloragogeno dei vermi, che rivestono il tubo digerente, sembrano indicare una esposizione attraverso la dieta a seguito della ingestione del terreno. E’interessante il fatto che l’accumulo di lipidi è in linea con le caratteristiche obesogene del BPA, ben manifestate nei mammiferi, uomo compreso. Tuttavia non ci sono ancora conoscenze sufficienti per stabilire se questo accumulo nei vermi sia dovuto ad una specifica alterazione degli enzimi di sintesi dei lipidi oppure più genericamente ad un aumento dello stress ossidativo. Molti studi stanno valutando la capacità del BPA di alterare la sintesi e il rilascio di lipidi in cellule umane e di ratto, ma non ci sono ancora studi di questo tipo per gli organismi edafici. E’ auspicabile che questo aspetto venga approfondito, ed eventualmente venga identificato un nuovo biomarker specifico dell’azione del BPA sull’accumulo di lipidi. Un altro aspetto che sarà interessante approfondire è il bioaccumulo: la valutazione del rischio ecotossicologico di una sostanza si basa anche sul potenziale di BCF che può essere pericoloso per il biota (incluso l’uomo) per trasferimento nella catena trofica. Considerando che non esistono ancora studi specifici del bioaccumulo del BPA in organismi del suolo, ed avendo messo in luce che l’assunzione della sostanza è avvenuta (probabilmente per via alimentare) ci si pone l’obiettivo futuro di valutare questo parametro nei lombrichi, in modo da avere un quadro più ampio degli effetti associati a questo interferente endocrino nei suoli.

Heiltraditionen und Biodiversität: Die traditionelle Medizin der Baatombu Nordbenins

Im Zentrum der vorliegenden Untersuchung steht die Nutzung von Medizinalpflanzen vor dem Hintergrund einer zurückgehenden Phytodiversität in Nordbenin. Die Dissertation ba-siert auf ethnologischen Forschungen, die in das interdisziplinäre Forschungsprojekt BIOTA (Biodiversity Monitoring Transect Analysis in Africa) eingebunden sind. Das BIOTA-Projekt untersucht die Wirkung menschlichen Handelns (insbesondere Nutzung) auf die Biodiversi-tät und versucht aus diesen Erkenntnissen Maßnahmen zum Erhalt der biologischen Vielfalt abzuleiten. Die vorliegende Studie basiert auf einem 13-monatigen Feldforschungsaufenthalt im Zeitraum von April 2004 bis August 2006 in der nordbeninischen Gemeinde Ouassa-Pehunco. Meine Informanten sind überwiegend traditionelle Heiler, mit denen ich standardi-sierte und offene Interviews durchführte, deren Behandlungsverfahren und Heilzeremonien ich teilnehmend beobachtete sowie dokumentierte und auf deren Initiative hin ich mich bei dem Aufbau eines Medizinalpflanzengartens einbrachte (cf. Kap. 1). In diesem Forschungsfeld situiere ich mich mit der Frage nach dem Einfluss einer verän-derten Pflanzenvielfalt auf die traditionelle medizinische Versorgung der Baatombu Nordbe-nins. Die Beantwortung dieser Frage erfolgt in mehreren Schritten. 1. Die Phytodiversität nimmt, wie von naturwissenschaftlicher Seite bestätigt, in der Region ab. 2. Lokale Heilkun-dige nehmen diesen Rückgang an verfügbaren Heilpflanzen ebenso wahr. 3. Die Abnahme der Pflanzenbestände führen die Heiler vor allem auf den Baumwollanbau und die demogra-fischen Entwicklungen der Region zurück - dies entspricht ebenfalls den Auffassungen von Naturwissenschaftlern, die eine Verdichtung der landwirtschaftlichen Bodennutzung fest-stellten. 4. Heilkundige und Heilpflanzenverkäuferinnen vermerken eine zunehmende Nach-frage nach lokaler Pflanzenmedizin aufgrund der steigenden Bevölkerungszahlen. 5. Die pflanzenbasierte Gesundheitsversorgung der lokalen Bevölkerung ist jedoch relativ gesi-chert, da die Heiler sich alternativ wirkender Medizinalpflanzen bedienen, ihre Therapiefor-men der veränderten Lage anpassen (z.B. geringere Dosierungen) und sie regelmäßig genutz-te Pflanzen im Medizinalpflanzengarten Guson wieder anpflanzen. Ein wichtiger Aspekt der Arbeit ist, dass die Heilpraktiken der Baatombu nicht allein auf naturheilkundlichem Erfahrungswissen beruhen, sondern in magisch-religiöse Vorstellungen eingebettet sind (cf. Kap. 2). Demzufolge untersuche ich die lokalen Krankheits- und Ge-sundheitsvorstellungen und die symbolischen Klassifikationen von Heilpflanzen und Krank-heiten (cf. Kap. 3). Ich stellte fest, dass nach Auffassung von Heilkundigen soziokulturelle Faktoren wie der Zeitpunkt und der Ort einer Sammlung sowie entsprechende Ernte-Rituale die medizinische Wirksamkeit von Pflanzen maßgeblich bedingen (cf. Kap. 5). Die Umwelt-klassifikation der Heiler (Landschafts- und Vegetationstypen) richtet sich demzufolge nach dem medizinischen Wert, den sie einer Heilpflanze zuschreiben (cf. Kap.4). Basierend auf diesen Erkenntnissen wurde von einigen engagierten Heilern und mit Un-terstützung von BIOTA, der GTZ und der Deutschen Botschaft der Medizinalpflanzengarten Guson eingerichtet, der eine Antwort auf die regionale Ressourcenverknappung darstellt und in seiner Anlage dem lokalen ökologischen und heilkundlichen Wissen der Heiler entspricht (cf. Kap. 6). Den Anwendungsbezug der Forschung nutzten die Heiler, um sich als Interes-sensgemeinschaft für den Erhalt der benötigten pflanzlichen Ressourcen einzusetzen.

Perfluorinated compounds in environmental matrices of Lake Victoria Gulf

ABSTRACT One of the major ecological challenges on Lake Victoria resources is the existence of “hot spots”, caused by human waste, urban runoff, and industrial effluents. The lake is tending towards eutrophication which is attributed to the increasing human population in its watershed. A report of the levels of perfluorooctane sulfonate and perfluorooctanoic acid in environmental matrices of Lake Victoria is presented, and the management implication of perfluorinated compounds and similar potential organic pollutants examined. Two widely consumed and economically important fish species namely Lates niloticus (Nile perch) and Oreochromis niloticus (Nile tilapia) were obtained from Winam gulf of Lake Victoria, Kenya, and analysed for perfluorooctane sulfonate and perfluorooctanoic acid in muscles and liver using liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectroscopy. Variability in the concentrations of perfluorooctanoic acid or perfluorooctane sulfonate in river waters (range perfluorooctanoic acid 0.4 – 96.4 ng/L and perfluorooctane sulfonate < 0.4 – 13.2 ng/L) was higher than for Lake waters (range perfluorooctanoic acid 0.4 – 11.7 ng/L and perfluorooctane sulfonate < 0.4 – 2.5 ng/L respectively). Significant correlations were tested between perfluorinated compounds levels in sediments, fish and water. Wastewater treatment plants and other anthropogenic sources have been identified as significant sources or pathways for the introduction of perfluoroalkyl compounds into Lake Victoria ecosystem. In this study, elevated concentrations of perfluorooctanoic acid and perfluorooctane sulfonate was found in two wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in Kisumu, City of Kenya. An alternative analytical method to liquid chromatography/ mass spectroscopy for analysis of perfluorocarboxylic acids in abiotic and biotic matrices where high concentrations are expected is also presented. Derivatisation of the acid group to form a suitable alkyl ester provided a suitable compound for mass spectroscopy detection coupled to gas chromatography instrumental analysis. The acid is esterified by an alkyl halide i.e benzyl bromide as the alkylating agent for Perfluorocarboxylic acids quantification. The study also involved degradability measurements of emerging perfluorinated surfactants substitutes. The stability of the substitutes of perfluorinated surfactants was tested by employing advanced oxidation processes, followed by conventional tests, among them an automated method based on the manometric respirometry test and standardized fix bed bioreactor [FBBR] on perfluorobutane sulfonate (PFBS), a fluoroethylene polymer, fluorosurfactant (Zonyl), two fluoraliphaticesters (NOVEC ™ FC4430 and NOVEC ™ FC4432) and 10-(trifluoromethoxy) decane-sulfonate. Most of these emmerging surfactants are well-established in the market and have been used in several applications as alternatives to PFOS and PFOA based surfactants. The results of this study can be used as pioneer information for further studies on the sources, behaviour and fate of PFOA and PFOS and other related compounds in both abiotic and biota compartments of Lake Victoria and other lakes. Further an overview in degradation of emerging perfluorinated compounds substitutes is presented. Contribution in method development especially for acid group based fluorosurfactants is presented. The data obtained in this study can particularly be considered when formulating policies and management measures for preservation and sustainability of Lake Victoria resources.

Use of bioassays and biomarkers in Daphnia magna to assess the effect of pharmaceutical residuals in freshwater ecosystems

Widespread occurrence of pharmaceuticals residues has been reported in aquatic ecosystems. However, their toxic effects on aquatic biota remain unclear. Generally, the acute toxicity has been assessed in laboratory experiments, while chronic toxicity studies have rarely been performed. Of importance appears also the assessment of mixture effects, since pharmaceuticals never occur in waters alone. The aim of the present work is to evaluate acute and chronic toxic response in the crustacean Daphnia magna exposed to single pharmaceuticals and mixtures. We tested fluoxetine, a SSRI widely prescribed as antidepressant, and propranolol, a non selective β-adrenergic receptor-blocking agent used to treat hypertension. Acute immobilization and chronic reproduction tests were performed according to OECD guidelines 202 and 211, respectively. Single chemicals were first tested separately. Toxicity of binary mixtures was then assessed using a fixed ratio experimental design with concentrations based on Toxic Units. The conceptual model of Concentration Addition was adopted in this study, as we assumed that the mixture effect mirrors the sum of the single substances for compounds having similar mode of action. The MixTox statistical method was applied to analyze the experimental results. Results showed a significant deviation from CA model that indicated antagonism between chemicals in both the acute and the chronic mixture tests. The study was integrated assessing the effects of fluoxetine on a battery of biomarkers. We wanted to evaluate the organism biological vulnerability caused by low concentrations of pharmaceutical occurring in the aquatic environment. We assessed the acetylcholinesterase and glutathione s-transferase enzymatic activities and the malondialdehyde production. No treatment induced significant alteration of biomarkers with respect to the control. Biological assays and the MixTox model application proved to be useful tools for pharmaceutical risk assessment. Although promising, the application of biomarkers in Daphnia magna needs further elucidation.

Reproduction of Mediterranean zooxanthellate and azooxanthellate scleractinian corals along environmental gradients

Despite extensive studies focus mainly on sexual reproductive characteristics in tropical scleractinian species, there is limited knowledge on temperate regions. The Mediterranean is a biodiversity hotspot under intense pressure from anthropogenic impacts. Climatic models further predict that the Mediterranean basin will be one of the most impacted regions by the ongoing warming trend. This makes it a potential model of more global patterns to occur in the world’s marine biota, and a natural focus of interest for research on climate. The present research contributed to increase data on reproductive modes and sexuality of temperate scleractinian corals, highlighting their developmental plasticity, showing different forms of propagation and different responses to environmental change. For the first time, sexuality and reproductive mode in Caryophyllia inornata were determined. An unusual embryogenesis without a clear seasonal pattern was observed, suggesting the possibility of an asexual origin. Sexual reproduction of Astroides calycularis was governed by annual changes in seawater temperature, as observed for other Mediterranean dendrophylliids. Defining the reproductive biology of these species is the starting point for studying their potential response to variations of environmental parameters, on a global climate change context. The results on the influence of temperature on reproductive output of the zooxanthellate (symbiosis with unicellular algae) Balanophyllia europaea and the non-zooxanthellate Leptopsammia pruvoti suggest that the latter may be quite tolerant to temperature increase, since the zooxanthellate species resulted less efficient at warm temperatures. A possible explanation could be related to their different trophic system. In B. europaea thermal tolerance is primarily governed by the symbiotic algae, making it more sensitive to temperature changes. On the contrary, the absence of symbionts in L. pruvoti might make it more resistant to temperature. In a progressively warming Mediterranean, the efficiency on scleractinian reproduction could be influenced in different ways, reflecting their extraordinary adaptability.

Valutazione del rischio ambientale associato alla presenza di metalli pesanti (Cd, Cu, Ni, Pb, Zn) nei sedimenti della Pialassa dei Piomboni.

I metalli pesanti presenti nei sedimenti marini possono essere rilasciati alla colonna d’acqua, in seguito a variazioni delle condizioni ambientali, ed entrare nelle catene trofiche degli organismi marini. A partire da una serie di campioni di sedimenti superficiali provenienti dalla Pialassa dei Piomboni (sito SIC-ZPS, a nord della Provincia di Ravenna), prelevati tra novembre e dicembre del 2012, è stato valutato il rischio potenziale associato alla presenza di metalli pesanti (Cd, Cu, Ni, Pb e Zn) per il biota residente nei sedimenti. È stato valutato il comportamento del rapporto SEM/AVS (contenuto di metalli simultaneamente estratti (SEM) e solfuri acidi volatili (AVS)) per ciascuno dei metalli oggetto dello studio. La metodica analitica ha previsto il trattamento dei campioni con HCl 6M, sotto flusso di azoto, e successivamente la lettura del contenuto di solfuro (raccolto in soluzioni di NaOH) e dei metalli pesanti allo spettrometro. Dal valore dei parametri chimico-fisici ottenuti nel momento del campionamento, è evidente che la zona interna della laguna risulta meno influenzata dalle maree rispetto a quella lungo il canale di navigazione. Le concentrazioni di metalli potenzialmente biodisponibili hanno evidenziato una distribuzione eterogenea. Del set di campioni analizzati, soltanto tre presentano un contenuto totale di metalli potenzialmente biodisponibili superiore al contenuto di solfuri labili (∑SEM/AVS>1), per cui la presenza di metalli bivalenti potrebbe rappresentare un rischio per il biota. Come suggerito da diversi autori, si è proceduto con l’ulteriore normalizzazione del rapporto (∑SEM/AVS) con il contenuto di carbonio organico relativo ad ogni campione di sedimento, escludendo possibili rischi associati alla presenza di metalli pesanti.

Comparative phylogeography of two co-distributed arctic-alpine freshwater insect species in Europe

The distribution pattern of European arctic-alpine disjunct species is of growing interest among biogeographers due to the arising variety of inferred demographic histories. In this thesis I used the co-distributed mayfly Ameletus inopinatus and the stonefly Arcynopteryx compacta as model species to investigate the European Pleistocene and Holocene history of stream-inhabiting arctic-alpine aquatic insects. I used last glacial maximum (LGM) species distribution models (SDM) to derive hypotheses on the glacial survival during the LGM and the recolonization of Fennoscandia: 1) both species potentially survived glacial cycles in periglacial, extra Mediterranean refugia, and 2) postglacial recolonization of Fennoscandia originated from these refugia. I tested these hypotheses using mitochondrial sequence (mtCOI) and species specific microsatellite data. Additionally, I used future SDM to predict the impact of climate change induced range shifts and habitat loss on the overall genetic diversity of the endangered mayfly A. inopinatus.rnI observed old lineages, deep splits, and almost complete lineage sorting of mtCOI sequences between mountain ranges. These results support the hypothesis that both species persisted in multiple periglacial extra-Mediterranean refugia in Central Europe during the LGM. However, the recolonization of Fennoscandia was very different between the two study species. For the mayfly A. inopinatus I found strong differentiation between the Fennoscandian and all other populations in sequence and microsatellite data, indicating that Fennoscandia was recolonized from an extra European refugium. High mtCOI genetic structure within Fennoscandia supports a recolonization of multiple lineages from independent refugia. However, this structure was not apparent in the microsatellite data, consistent with secondary contact without sexual incompability. In contrast, the stonefly A. compacta exhibited low genetic structure and shared mtCOI haplotypes among Fennoscandia and the Black Forest, suggesting a shared Pleistocene refugium in the periglacial tundrabelt. Again, there is incongruence with the microsatellite data, which could be explained with ancestral polymorphism or female-biased dispersal. Future SDM projects major regional habitat loss for the mayfly A. inopinatus, particularly in Central European mountain ranges. By relating these range shifts to my population genetic results, I identified conservation units primarily in Eastern Europe, that if preserved would maintain high levels of the present-day genetic diversity of A. inopinatus and continue to provide long-term suitable habitat under future climate warming scenarios.rnIn this thesis I show that despite similar present day distributions the underlying demographic histories of the study species are vastly different, which might be due to differing dispersal capabilities and niche plasticity. I present genetic, climatic, and ecological data that can be used to prioritize conservation efforts for cold-adapted freshwater insects in light of future climate change. Overall, this thesis provides a next step in filling the knowledge gap regarding molecular studies of the arctic-alpine invertebrate fauna. However, there is continued need to explore the phenomenon of arctic-alpine disjunctions to help understand the processes of range expansion, regression, and lineage diversification in Europe’s high latitude and high altitude biota.

Microscopic and spectroscopic analysis of biogenic aerosols

Aerosol particles are important actors in the Earth’s atmosphere and climate system. They scatter and absorb sunlight, serve as nuclei for water droplets and ice crystals in clouds and precipitation, and are a subject of concern for public health. Atmospheric aerosols originate from both natural and anthropogenic sources, and emissions resulting from human activities have the potential to influence the hydrological cycle and climate. An assessment of the extent and impacts of this human force requires a sound understanding of the natural aerosol background. This dissertation addresses the composition, properties, and atmospheric cycling of biogenic aerosol particles, which represent a major fraction of the natural aerosol burden. The main focal points are: (i) Studies of the autofluo-rescence of primary biological aerosol particles (PBAP) and its application in ambient measure-ments, and (ii) X-ray microscopic and spectroscopic investigations of biogenic secondary organic aerosols (SOA) from the Amazonian rainforest.rnAutofluorescence of biological material has received increasing attention in atmospheric science because it allows real-time monitoring of PBAP in ambient air, however it is associated with high uncertainty. This work aims at reducing the uncertainty through a comprehensive characterization of the autofluorescence properties of relevant biological materials. Fluorescence spectroscopy and microscopy were applied to analyze the fluorescence signatures of pure biological fluorophores, potential non-biological interferences, and various types of reference PBAP. Characteristic features and fingerprint patterns were found and provide support for the operation, interpretation, and further development of PBAP autofluorescence measurements. Online fluorescence detection and offline fluorescence microscopy were jointly applied in a comprehensive bioaerosol field measurement campaign that provided unprecedented insights into PBAP-linked biosphere-atmosphere interactions in a North-American semi-arid forest environment. Rain showers were found to trigger massive bursts of PBAP, including high concentrations of biological ice nucleators that may promote further precipitation and can be regarded as part of a bioprecipitation feedback cycle in the climate system. rnIn the pristine tropical rainforest air of the Amazon, most cloud and fog droplets form on bio-genic SOA particles, but the composition, morphology, mixing state and origin of these particles is hardly known. X-ray microscopy and spectroscopy (STXM-NEXAFS) revealed distinctly different types of secondary organic matter (carboxyl- vs. hydroxy-rich) with internal structures that indicate a strong influence of phase segregation, cloud and fog processing on SOA formation, and aging. In addition, nanometer-sized potassium-rich particles emitted by microorganisms and vegetation were found to act as seeds for the condensation of SOA. Thus, the influence of forest biota on the atmospheric abundance of cloud condensation nuclei appears to be more direct than previously assumed. Overall, the results of this dissertation suggest that biogenic aerosols, clouds and precipitation are indeed tightly coupled through a bioprecipitation cycle, and that advanced microscopic and spectroscopic techniques can provide detailed insights into these mechanisms.rn

Moving beyond a descriptive aquatic toxicology: the value of biological process and trait information

In order to improve the ability to link chemical exposure to toxicological and ecological effects, aquatic toxicology will have to move from observing what chemical concentrations induce adverse effects to more explanatory approaches, that are concepts which build on knowledge of biological processes and pathways leading from exposure to adverse effects, as well as on knowledge on stressor vulnerability as given by the genetic, physiological and ecological (e.g., life history) traits of biota. Developing aquatic toxicology in this direction faces a number of challenges, including (i) taking into account species differences in toxicant responses on the basis of the evolutionarily developed diversity of phenotypic vulnerability to environmental stressors, (ii) utilizing diversified biological response profiles to serve as biological read across for prioritizing chemicals, categorizing them according to modes of action, and for guiding targeted toxicity evaluation; (iii) prediction of ecological consequences of toxic exposure from knowledge of how biological processes and phenotypic traits lead to effect propagation across the levels of biological hierarchy; and (iv) the search for concepts to assess the cumulative impact of multiple stressors. An underlying theme in these challenges is that, in addition to the question of what the chemical does to the biological receptor, we should give increasing emphasis to the question how the biological receptor handles the chemicals, i.e., through which pathways the initial chemical-biological interaction extends to the adverse effects, how this extension is modulated by adaptive or compensatory processes as well as by phenotypic traits of the biological receptor.

Synthesis of novel solid materials from carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide

The increase of atmospheric CO2 has been identified as the primary cause for the observed global warming over the past century. The geological and oceanic sequestration of CO2 has issues, such as cost and leakage as well as effects on sea biota. The ideal solution should be the conversion of CO2 into useful materials. However, most processes require high energy input. Therefore, it is necessary to explore novel processes with low energy demands to convert CO2 to useful solid materials. Amorphous carbon nitride and graphone received much attention due to their unusual structures and properties as well as their potential applications. However, to date there has been no attempt to synthesize those solid materials from CO2. Lithium nitride (Li3N) and lithium imide (Li2NH) are important hydrogen storage materials. However, their optical properties and reactivity has not yet studied. This dissertation research is aimed at the synthesis of carbon nitrides and graphone from CO2 and CO via their reaction with Li3N and Li2NH. The research was focused on (1) the evaluation of Li3N and Li2NH properties, (2) thermodynamic analysis of conversion of carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide into carbon nitride and other solid materials, (3) synthesis of carbon nitride from carbon dioxide, and (4) synthesis of graphone from carbon monoxide. First, the properties of Li3N, Li2NH, and LiNH2 were investigated. The X-ray diffraction measurements revealed that heat-treatment at 500°C introduce a phase transformation of β-Li3N to α-Li3N. Furthermore, the UV-visible absorption evaluation showed that the energy gaps of α-Li3N and β-Li3N are 1.81 and 2.14 eV, respectively. The UV-visible absorption measurements also revealed that energy gaps are 3.92 eV for Li2NH and 3.93 eV for LiNH2. This thermodynamic analysis was performed to predict the reactions. It was demonstrated that the reaction between carbon dioxide and lithium nitride is thermodynamically favorable and exothermic, which can generate carbon nitride and lithium cyanamide. Furthermore, the thermodynamic calculation indicated that the reaction between carbon monoxide and lithium imide can produce graphone and lithium cyanamide along with releasing heat. Based on the above thermodynamic analysis, the experiment of CO2 and Li3N reaction and CO and Li2NH were carried out. It was found that the reaction between CO2 and Li3N is very fast and exothermic. The XRD and element analysis revealed that the products are crystal lithium cyanamide and amorphous carbon nitrides with Li2O and Li2CO3. Furthermore, TEM images showed that carbon nitrides possess layer-structure, namely, it is graphene-structured carbon nitride. It was found that the reaction between Li2NH and CO was also exothermic, which produced graphone instead of carbon nitride. The composition and structures of graphone were evaluated by XRD, element analysis, TEM observation, and Raman spectra.

Molecular phylogenetic analyses identify Alpine differentiation and dysploid chromosome number changes as major forces for the evolution of the European endemic Phyteuma (Campanulaceae)

Phyteuma is a chromosomally and ecologically diverse vascular plant genus and constitutes an excellent system for studying both the role of chromosomal change for species diversification and the evolution of high-mountain biota. This kind of research is, however, hampered by the lack of a sound phylogenetic framework exacerbated by the notoriously low predictive power of traditional taxonomy with respect to phylogenetic relationships in Campanulaceae. Based on a comprehensive taxon sampling and analyses of nuclear and plastid sequence and AFLP fingerprint data, Phyteuma is confirmed as a monophyletic group sister to the monotypic Physoplexis, which is in line with their peculiar flower morphologies. Within Phyteuma two clades, largely corresponding to previously recognized sections, are consistently found. The traditional circumscription of taxonomic series is largely rejected. Whereas distinctness of the currently recognized species is mostly corroborated, some interspecific relationships remain ambiguous due to incongruences between nuclear and plastid data. Major forces for diversification and evolution of Phyteuma are descending dysploidy (i.e., a decrease in chromosome base number) as well as allopatric and ecological differentiation within the Alps, the genus' center of species diversity. (C) 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Phylogeography of silver pheasant (Lophura nycthemera L.) across China: aggregate effects of refugia, introgression, and riverine barriers

The role of Pleistocene glacial cycles in forming the contemporary genetic structure of organisms has been well studied in China with a particular focus on the Tibetan Plateau. However, China has a complex topography and diversity of local climates, and how glacial cycles may have shaped the subtropical and tropical biota of the region remains mostly unaddressed. To investigate the factors that affected the phylogeography and population history of a widely distributed and nondeciduous forest species, we analysed morphological characters, mitochondrial DNA sequences and nuclear microsatellite loci in the Silver Pheasant (Lophura nycthemera). In a pattern generally consistent with phenotypic clusters, but not nominal subspecies, deeply divergent mitochondrial lineages restricted to different geographic regions were detected. Coalescent simulations indicated that the time of main divergence events corresponded to major glacial periods in the Pleistocene and gene flow was only partially lowered by drainage barriers between some populations. Intraspecific cytonuclear discordance was revealed in mitochondrial lineages from Hainan Island and the Sichuan Basin with evidence of nuclear gene flow from neighbouring populations into the latter. Unexpectedly, hybridization was revealed in Yingjiang between the Silver Pheasant and Kalij Pheasant (Lophura leucomelanos) with wide genetic introgression at both the mtDNA and nuclear levels. Our results highlight a novel phylogeographic pattern in a subtropical area generated from the combined effects of climate oscillation, partial drainage barriers and interspecific hybridization. Cytonuclear discordance combined with morphological differentiation implies that complex historical factors shaped the divergence process in this biodiversity hot spot area of southern China.