Low-Income Developing Countries and WTO Litigation: Why Wake Up the Sleeping Dog?

The World Trade Organization (WTO) is one of the most judicialized dispute settlement systems in international politics. While a general appreciation has developed that the system has worked quite well, research has not paid sufficient attention to the weakest actors in the system. This paper addresses the puzzle of missing cases of least-developed countries initiating WTO disputes settlement procedures. It challenges the existing literature on developing countries in WTO dispute settlement which predominantly focuses on legal capacity and economic interests. The paper provides an argument that the small universe of ‘actionable cases’, the option of free riding and the assessment of the perceived opportunity costs related to other foreign policy priorities better explain the absence of cases. In addition (and somewhat counterintuitively), we argue that the absence of cases is not necessarily bad news and shows how the weakest actors can use the dispute settlement system in a ‘lighter version’ or in indirect ways. The argument is empirically assessed by conducting a case study on four West African cotton-producing countries (C4) and their involvement in dispute settlement.

Redistribution of plasma membrane phosphatidylserine during erythroid development

Phosphatidylserine (PS) is not only one of the structural components of the plasma membrane, it also plays an important role in blood coagulation, and cell-cell interactions during aging and apoptosis.^ Here we studied some alterations that occur in membrane phosphatidylserine asymmetry during erythroid differentiation-associated apoptosis and erythrocyte aging and characterized some aspects in the regulation of PS asymmetry.^ Erythroleukemia cells, frequently used to study erythroid development, undergo apoptosis when induced to differentiate along the erythroid lineage. In the case of K562 cells induced to differentiate with hemin, this event is characterized by DNA fragmentation that correlates with downregulation of the survival protein BCL-xL and ultimately the result is cell death. We showed here that reorientation of PS from the inner-to-outer plasma membrane leaflet and inhibition of the aminophospholipid translocase are also events observed upon hemin treatment. We observed that constitutive expression of BCL-2 did not inhibit the alterations caused by hemin in membrane lipid asymmetry and only slightly prevented hemin-induced DNA fragmentation. On the other hand, BCL-2 effectively inhibited actinomycin D and staurosporine-induced DNA fragmentation and the appearance of PS at the outer leaflet of these cells. z.VAD.fmk, a widely used caspases inhibitor, blocked DNA fragmentation induced by both hemin and actinomycin D but only inhibited PS externalization in cells treated with actinomycin D.^ These results showed that PS externalization occurs during differentiation-related apoptosis. Unlike the pharmacologically-induced event, however, hemin-induced PS redistribution seems to be regulated by a mechanism independent of BCL-2 and caspases.^ Membrane PS is externalized not only during apoptosis but also during red blood cell senescence. To study this event, we artificially induced cellular aging by in vitro storage or vesiculation in the presence of the amphipathic lipid dilauroylphosphatidylcholine. These cells were monitored for age-dependent changes in cell density by Percoll gradient centrifugation and assessed for alterations in membrane lipid asymmetry and their ability to be cleared in vivo. These experiments demonstrated a progressive increase in red cell density upon vesiculation and in vitro aging. The clearance rate of cells obtained after vesiculation, was biphasic in nature, showing a very rapid component together with a second component consistent with the clearance rates of control populations. Quantitation of PS in the outer leaflet of red cells revealed that membrane redistribution of PS occurred upon in vitro storage and vesiculation. Inhibition of the aminophospholipid translocase with the sulfhydryl-oxidant reagent pyridyldithioethylamine resulted in higher PS externalization and enhanced clearance of vesiculated RBC.^ These observations not only suggest that vesiculation may be the mechanism responsible for some of the characteristic changes in cell density and PS asymmetry that occur upon cell aging, but also confirm the role of PS in the recognition and clearance of senescent cells. ^

Selective uptake, distribution, and redistribution of Cd-109, Co-57, Zn-65, Ni-63, and Cs-134 via xylem and phloem in the heavy metal hyperaccumulator Solanum nigrum L

The focus of this article was to explore the translocation of Cd-109, Co-57, Zn-65, Ni-63, and Cs-134 via xylem and phloem in the newly found hyperaccumulator Solanum nigrum L. Two experiments with the uptake via the roots and transport of Cd-109, Co-57, and Zn-65 labeled by roots, and the redistribution of Cd-109, Zn-65, Co-57, Ni-63, and Cs-134 using flap label in S. nigrum in a hydroponic culture with a standard nutrient solution were conducted. The results showed that Cd-109 added for 24 h to the nutrient medium of young plants was rapidly taken up, transferred to the shoot, and accumulated in the cotyledons and the oldest leaves but was not efficiently redistributed within the shoot afterward leading to a rather low content in the fruits. In contrast, Co-57 was more slowly taken up and released to the shoot, but afterward, this element was redistributed from older leaves to younger leaves and maturing fruits. Zn-65 was rapidly taken up and transferred to the shoot (mainly to the youngest leaves and not to the cotyledons). Afterward, this radionuclide was redistributed within the shoot to the youngest organs and finally accumulated in the maturing fruits. After flap labeling, all five heavy metals tested (Cd-109, Co-57, Zn-65, Ni-63, Cs-134) were exported from the labeled leaf and redistributed within the plant. The accumulation in the fruits was most pronounced for Ni-63 and Zn-65, while a relatively high percentage of Co-57 was finally found in the roots. Cs-134 was roughly in the middle of them. The transport of Cd-109 differed from that previously reported for wheat or lupin and might be important for the potential of S. nigrum to hyperaccumulate cadmium.

The Determinants of Personal Income Tax Progressivity Around the Globe

This paper utilizes a novel database collected by the authors to document features of the progressivity of personal income tax systems across 209 countries for the years 1980-2009. We measure progressivity in several ways. First, we associate it with the increase in effective average (marginal) tax rates between a wage of zero and ten times the average wage in a country. Second, we consider the curvature of the tax schedule expressed as the difference between the effective average (marginal) tax schedule from a wage of zero to ten times the average wage and a linear average tax schedule and, alternatively, the diference between the effective average (marginal) tax schedule from the minimum positive taxable income, to ten times the average wage as opposed to a linear average tax schedule. Moreover, the paper assesses patterns regarding the conditional correlation of country-specifc tax progressivity measures with a host of economic and political country-specific characteristics and find the labor supply elasticity and the income replacement rates for the unemployed to be key determinants of progressivity around the globe, in line with economic theory.

THE EFFECTS OF IRRADIATION ON HOT JOVIAN ATMOSPHERES: HEAT REDISTRIBUTION AND ENERGY DISSIPATION

Hot Jupiters, due to the proximity to their parent stars, are subjected to a strong irradiating flux that governs their radiative and dynamical properties. We compute a suite of three-dimensional circulation models with dual-band radiative transfer, exploring a relevant range of irradiation temperatures, both with and without temperature inversions. We find that, for irradiation temperatures T irr lsim 2000 K, heat redistribution is very efficient, producing comparable dayside and nightside fluxes. For T irr ≈ 2200-2400 K, the redistribution starts to break down, resulting in a high day-night flux contrast. Our simulations indicate that the efficiency of redistribution is primarily governed by the ratio of advective to radiative timescales. Models with temperature inversions display a higher day-night contrast due to the deposition of starlight at higher altitudes, but we find this opacity-driven effect to be secondary compared to the effects of irradiation. The hotspot offset from the substellar point is large when insolation is weak and redistribution is efficient, and decreases as redistribution breaks down. The atmospheric flow can be potentially subjected to the Kelvin-Helmholtz instability (as indicated by the Richardson number) only in the uppermost layers, with a depth that penetrates down to pressures of a few millibars at most. Shocks penetrate deeper, down to several bars in the hottest model. Ohmic dissipation generally occurs down to deeper levels than shock dissipation (to tens of bars), but the penetration depth varies with the atmospheric opacity. The total dissipated Ohmic power increases steeply with the strength of the irradiating flux and the dissipation depth recedes into the atmosphere, favoring radius inflation in the most irradiated objects. A survey of the existing data, as well as the inferences made from them, reveals that our results are broadly consistent with the observational trends.

Detection and management of drug-resistant tuberculosis in HIV-infected patients in lower-income countries.

SETTING Drug resistance threatens tuberculosis (TB) control, particularly among human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infected persons. OBJECTIVE To describe practices in the prevention and management of drug-resistant TB under antiretroviral therapy (ART) programs in lower-income countries. DESIGN We used online questionnaires to collect program-level data on 47 ART programs in Southern Africa (n = 14), East Africa (n = 8), West Africa (n = 7), Central Africa (n = 5), Latin America (n = 7) and the Asia-Pacific (n = 6 programs) in 2012. Patient-level data were collected on 1002 adult TB patients seen at 40 of the participating ART programs. RESULTS Phenotypic drug susceptibility testing (DST) was available in 36 (77%) ART programs, but was only used for 22% of all TB patients. Molecular DST was available in 33 (70%) programs and was used in 23% of all TB patients. Twenty ART programs (43%) provided directly observed therapy (DOT) during the entire course of treatment, 16 (34%) during the intensive phase only, and 11 (23%) did not follow DOT. Fourteen (30%) ART programs reported no access to second-line anti-tuberculosis regimens; 18 (38%) reported TB drug shortages. CONCLUSIONS Capacity to diagnose and treat drug-resistant TB was limited across ART programs in lower-income countries. DOT was not always implemented and drug supplies were regularly interrupted, which may contribute to the global emergence of drug resistance.

Genital chlamydia prevalence in Europe and in non-European high income countries: systematic review and meta-analysis

Background: Accurate information about the prevalence of Chlamydia trachomatis is needed to assess national prevention and control measures. Methods: We systematically reviewed population-based cross-sectional studies that estimated chlamydia prevalence in European Union/European Economic Area (EU/EEA) Member States and non-European high income countries from January 1990 to August 2012. We examined results in forest plots, explored heterogeneity using the I2 statistic, and conducted random effects meta-analysis if appropriate. Metaregression was used to examine the relationship between study characteristics and chlamydia prevalence estimates. Results: We included 25 population-based studies from 11 EU/EEA countries and 14 studies from five other high income countries. Four EU/EEA Member States reported on nationally representative surveys of sexually experienced adults aged 18-26 years (response rates 52-71%). In women, chlamydia point prevalence estimates ranged from 3.0-5.3%; the pooled average of these estimates was 3.6% (95% CI 2.4, 4.8, I2 0%). In men, estimates ranged from 2.4-7.3% (pooled average 3.5%; 95% CI 1.9, 5.2, I2 27%). Estimates in EU/EEA Member States were statistically consistent with those in other high income countries (I2 0% for women, 6% for men). There was statistical evidence of an association between survey response rate and estimated chlamydia prevalence; estimates were higher in surveys with lower response rates, (p=0.003 in women, 0.018 in men). Conclusions: Population-based surveys that estimate chlamydia prevalence are at risk of participation bias owing to low response rates. Estimates obtained in nationally representative samples of the general population of EU/EEA Member States are similar to estimates from other high income countries.

A Swiss paradox? Higher income inequality of municipalities is associated with lower mortality in Switzerland.

It has long been surmised that income inequality within a society negatively affects public health. However, more recent studies suggest there is no association, especially when analyzing small areas. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of income inequality on mortality in Switzerland using the Gini index on municipality level. The study population included all individuals >30 years at the 2000 Swiss census (N = 4,689,545) living in 2,740 municipalities with 35.5 million person-years of follow-up and 456,211 deaths over follow-up. Cox proportional hazard regression models were adjusted for age, gender, marital status, nationality, urbanization, and language region. Results were reported as hazard ratios (HR) with 95 % confidence intervals. The mean Gini index across all municipalities was 0.377 (standard deviation 0.062, range 0.202-0.785). Larger cities, high-income municipalities and tourist areas had higher Gini indices. Higher income inequality was consistently associated with lower mortality risk, except for death from external causes. Adjusting for sex, marital status, nationality, urbanization and language region only slightly attenuated effects. In fully adjusted models, hazards of all-cause mortality by increasing Gini index quintile were HR = 0.99 (0.98-1.00), HR = 0.98 (0.97-0.99), HR = 0.95 (0.94-0.96), HR = 0.91 (0.90-0.92) compared to the lowest quintile. The relationship of income inequality with mortality in Switzerland is contradictory to what has been found in other developed high-income countries. Our results challenge current beliefs about the effect of income inequality on mortality on small area level. Further investigation is required to expose the underlying relationship between income inequality and population health.

Immunodeficiency in children starting antiretroviral therapy in low-, middle-, and high-income countries.

BACKGROUND The CD4 cell count or percent (CD4%) at the start of combination antiretroviral therapy (cART) is an important prognostic factor in children starting therapy and an important indicator of program performance. We describe trends and determinants of CD4 measures at cART initiation in children from low-, middle-, and high-income countries. METHODS We included children aged <16 years from clinics participating in a collaborative study spanning sub-Saharan Africa, Asia, Latin America, and the United States. Missing CD4 values at cART start were estimated through multiple imputation. Severe immunodeficiency was defined according to World Health Organization criteria. Analyses used generalized additive mixed models adjusted for age, country, and calendar year. RESULTS A total of 34,706 children from 9 low-income, 6 lower middle-income, 4 upper middle-income countries, and 1 high-income country (United States) were included; 20,624 children (59%) had severe immunodeficiency. In low-income countries, the estimated prevalence of children starting cART with severe immunodeficiency declined from 76% in 2004 to 63% in 2010. Corresponding figures for lower middle-income countries were from 77% to 66% and for upper middle-income countries from 75% to 58%. In the United States, the percentage decreased from 42% to 19% during the period 1996 to 2006. In low- and middle-income countries, infants and children aged 12-15 years had the highest prevalence of severe immunodeficiency at cART initiation. CONCLUSIONS Despite progress in most low- and middle-income countries, many children continue to start cART with severe immunodeficiency. Early diagnosis and treatment of HIV-infected children to prevent morbidity and mortality associated with immunodeficiency must remain a global public health priority.

Redistribution and attitudes toward immigrants: A European perspective

We investigate whether the dependence of immigrants on welfare benefits leads to opposition to further immigration by natives and immigrants in a pooled cross-section of 21 European countries for the 2004{2010 period. Explicitly controlling for the dependence of immigrants and natives on benefits we find that higher benefit take-up rates among immigrants than among natives lead to less favourable attitudes of natives towards immigration. Interestingly, we do not find similar stylised facts for immigrants' attitudes towards immigration.