Zebrafish as a model of Parkinson's disease

Parkinson’s disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disease among the elderly. Its etiology is unknown and no disease-modifying drugs are available. Thus, more information concerning its pathogenesis is needed. Among other genes, mutated PTEN-induced kinase 1 (PINK1) has been linked to early-onset and sporadic PD, but its mode of action is poorly understood. Most animal models of PD are based on the use of the neurotoxin 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP). MPTP is metabolized to MPP+ by monoamine oxidase B (MAO B) and causes cell death of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra in mammals. Zebrafish has been a widely used model organism in developmental biology, but is now emerging as a model for human diseases due to its ideal combination of properties. Zebrafish are inexpensive and easy to maintain, develop rapidly, breed in large quantities producing transparent embryos, and are readily manipulated by various methods, particularly genetic ones. In addition, zebrafish are vertebrate animals and results derived from zebrafish may be more applicable to mammals than results from invertebrate genetic models such as Drosophila melanogaster and Caenorhabditis elegans. However, the similarity cannot be taken for granted. The aim of this study was to establish and test a PD model using larval zebrafish. The developing monoaminergic neuronal systems of larval zebrafish were investigated. We identified and classified 17 catecholaminergic and 9 serotonergic neuron populations in the zebrafish brain. A 3-dimensional atlas was created to facilitate future research. Only one gene encoding MAO was found in the zebrafish genome. Zebrafish MAO showed MAO A-type substrate specificity, but non-A-non-B inhibitor specificity. Distribution of MAO in larval and adult zebrafish brains was both diffuse and distinctly cellular. Inhibition of MAO during larval development led to markedly elevated 5-hydroxytryptamine (serotonin, 5-HT) levels, which decreased the locomotion of the fish. MPTP exposure caused a transient loss of cells in specific aminergic cell populations and decreased locomotion. MPTP-induced changes could be rescued by the MAO B inhibitor deprenyl, suggesting a role for MAO in MPTP toxicity. MPP+ affected only one catecholaminergic cell population; thus, the action of MPP+ was more selective than that of MPTP. The zebrafish PINK1 gene was cloned in zebrafish, and morpholino oligonucleotides were used to suppress its expression in larval zebrafish. The functional domains and expression pattern of zebrafish PINK1 resembled those of other vertebrates, suggesting that zebrafish is a feasible model for studying PINK1. Translation inhibition resulted in cell loss of the same catecholaminergic cell populations as MPTP and MPP+. Inactivation of PINK1 sensitized larval zebrafish to subefficacious doses of MPTP, causing a decrease in locomotion and cell loss in one dopaminergic cell population. Zebrafish appears to be a feasible model for studying PD, since its aminergic systems, mode of action of MPTP, and functions of PINK1 resemble those of mammalians. However, the functions of zebrafish MAO differ from the two forms of MAO found in mammals. Future studies using zebrafish PD models should utilize the advantages specific to zebrafish, such as the ability to execute large-scale genetic or drug screens.

Using a process-based model, ParopSys, to predict the impact of climate change on the eucalypt plantation pest Paropsis atomaria.

The eucalypt leaf beetle, Paropsis atomaria Olivier, is an increasingly important pest of eucalypt plantations in subtropical eastern Australia. A process-based model, ParopSys, was developed using DYMEXTM and was found to accurately predict the beetle populations. Climate change scenarios within the latest Australian climate model forecast range were run in ParopSys at three locations to predict changes in beetle performance. Relative population peaks of early generations did not change but shifted to earlier in the season. Temperature increases of 1.0 to 1.5 ºC or greater predicted an extra generation of adults at Gympie and Canberra, but not for Lowmead, where increased populations of late season adults were observed under all scenarios. Furthermore, an additional generation of late-larval stages was predicted at temperature increases of greater than 1.0 ºC at Lowmead. Management strategies to address these changes are discussed, as are requirements to improve the predictive capacity of the model.

Actions to restore and develop Jungle perch recreational fisheries

Queensland is the only state with Jungle perch. Development and restoration of their fisheries will attract interstate anglers, creating economic benefits. Jungle perch have been successfully spawned on numerous occasions by DEEDI, but larval survival beyond day 6 has been a problem. The larval rearing problem must be overcome to progress restoration and development of the Jungle perch fishery. Key areas requiring investigation are brood stock nutrition, feeding cues and optimal larval feeds. Following successful production of fingerlings, an evaluation of the reintroduction of fingerlings at selected sites is required to determine and the guide success of the stocking program.

: Parasitoids of the painted apple moth Teia anartoides Walker (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae) in Australia.

Painted apple moth Teia anartoides Walker (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae), a native to Australia, was discovered in Auckland, New Zealand in late 1999 and eradicated by 2006. It was recognised in 2002 that biological control would be the most effective long-term control strategy if eradication was unsuccessful, and a search was initiated for potential biocontrol agents in Australia. In 2003, autumn and spring surveys were undertaken in Victoria, Tasmania and South Australia of the guild of parasitoid natural enemies of T. anartoides. Eggs, larvae and pupae were collected and held to rear out any parasitoids. In addition, localised searches were made in Queensland in late 2003 early 2004 and laboratory-reared juvenile stages of T. anartoides were released for recapture in both Victoria and Queensland. Acacia dealbata Link (Fabales: Fabaceae) was the main plant from which T. anartoides was recovered, followed by apple. Most T. anartoides samples were collected from Victoria and Tasmania. Eighteen species from 13 genera of egg, larval and pupal parasitoids were reared and included Diptera (Tachinidae) and Hymenoptera (Braconidae, Encyrtidae, Eulophidae and Ichneumonidae). Of the seven Hymenopteran genera recovered from the larval stage, the most common in Victoria and Tasmania was a previously unidentified larval parasitoid Cotesia Cameron (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) sp. Echthromorpha intricatoria (Fabricius) (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae) was the dominant pupal parasitoid. The survey showed that the parasitoid complex associated with T anartoides is structurally very similar to that on other pest Lymantriidae in the northern hemisphere such as gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar L.) (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae). Meteorus pulchricornis (Wesmael) (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) was recorded for the first time in Australia.

Life history and host range of Alagoasa extrema (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Alticinae), a potential biological control agent of Lantana spp. (Verbenaceae) in Australia

The life history and host range of the lantana beetle, Alagoasa extrema, a potential biocontrol agent for Lantana spp. were investigated in a quarantine unit at the Alan Fletcher Research Station, Brisbane, Australia. Adults feed on leaves and females lay batches of about 17 eggs on the soil surface around the stems of plants. The eggs take 16 days to hatch and newly emerged larvae move up the stem to feed on young leaves. Larvae feed for about 23 days and there are three instars. There is a prepupal non-feeding stage that lasts about 12 days and the pupal stage, which occurs in a cocoon in the soil, lasts 16 days. Teneral adults remain in the cocoon for 3 days to harden prior to emergence. Males live for about 151 days while females live for about 127 days. The pre-oviposition period is 19 days. In no-choice larval feeding trials, nine plant species, representing three families, supported development to adult. Three species, Aloysia triphylla, Citharexylum spinosum and Pandorea pandorana were able to support at least two successive generations. These results confirm those reported in South Africa and suggest that A. extrema is not sufficiently specific for release in Australia. Furthermore, it is not recommended for release in any other country which is considering biological control of lantana.

Using Trichogramma Westwood (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) for insect pest biological control in cotton crops: an Australian perspective.

Trichogramma Westwood egg parasitoids alone generally fail to suppress heliothine pests when released in established cotton-growing regions. Factors hindering their success include indiscriminate use of detrimental insecticides, compensation for minimal pest larval hatch due to their activity via reduced larval cannibalism or mortality in general, singly laid heliothine eggs avoiding detection and asynchronous development benefiting host over parasitoid. Yet, despite these limitations, relatively large Trichogramma pretiosum Riley populations pervade and effectively suppress Helicoverpa (Hardwick) pests in Australian Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner)-transgenic cotton, Gossypium hirsutum L., crops, especially in the Ord River Irrigation Area (ORIA) of tropical northern Australia, where their impact on the potentially resistant pest species, Helicoverpa armigera (Hubner), is considered integral to the local insecticide resistance management (IRM) strategy for continued, sustainable Bt-transgenic cotton production. When devoid of conventional insecticides, relatively warm and stable conditions of the early dry season in winter grown ORIA Bt-transgenic cotton crops are conducive to Trichogramma proliferation and biological control appears effective. Further, there is considerable scope to improve Trichogramma's biological control potential, in both the ORIA and established cotton-growing regions, via habitat manipulation. It is proposed that Trichogramma may prove equally effective in developing agricultural regions of monsoonal northern Australia, and that environmental constraints on Trichogramma survival, and those of other natural enemies, require due consideration prior to their successful application in biological control programs.

Introduction, establishment, and potential geographic range of Carmenta sp. nr ithacae (Lepidoptera: Sesiidae), a biological control agent for Parthenium hysterophorus (Asteraceae) in Australia

Parthenium (Parthenium hysterophorus L.), a major weed causing economic, environmental, and human and animal health problems in Australia and several countries in Asia, Africa, and the Pacific, has been a target for biological control in Australia since the mid-1970s. Nine species of insects and two rust fungi have been introduced as biological control agents into Australia. These include Carmenta sp. nr ithacae, a root feeding agent from Mexico. The larvae of C. sp. nr ithacae bore through the stem-base into the root where they feed on the cortical tissue of the taproot. During 1998-2002, 2,816 larval-infested plants and 387 adults were released at 31 sites across Queensland, Australia. Evidence of field establishment was first observed in two of the release sites in central Queensland in 2004. Annual surveys at these sites and nonrelease sites during 2006-2011 showed wide variations in the incidence and abundance of C. sp. nr ithacae between years and sites. Surveys at three of the nine release sites in northern Queensland and 16 of the 22 release sites in central Queensland confirmed the field establishment of C. sp. nr ithacae in four release sites and four nonrelease sites, all in central Queensland. No field establishment was evident in the inland region or in northern Queensland. A CLIMEX model based on the native range distribution of C. sp. nr ithacae predicts that areas east of the dividing range along the coast are more suitable for field establishment than inland areas. Future efforts to redistribute this agent should be restricted to areas identified as climatically favorable by the CLIMEX model.

Foraging behaviours of Diachasmimorpha kraussii (Fullaway) (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) and its host Bactrocera tryoni (Froggatt) (Diptera: Tephritidae) in a nectarine (Prunus persica (L.) Batsch var. nectarina (Aiton) Maxim) orchard

Diachasmimorpha kraussii is a larval parasitoid of dacine fruit flies. Host utilisation behaviour, including field foraging behaviour, is poorly known in this species. The diurnal foraging behaviour of D. kraussii and one of its common hosts, Bactrocera tryoni, in a nectarine orchard was concurrently recorded. Observations of mating, resting, feeding and oviposition were taken two-hourly on 42 trees, commencing at 07:00 h and terminating at 17:30 h, for 17 days. Resting and oviposition were common events within the orchard for both species, while mating behaviours were not recorded in the orchard for either species. Feeding was not observed for D. kraussii and was rare for B. tryoni. At the level of the individual tree there was a very weak, but significant correlation between parasitoid and fly abundance over a day, but when broken down to the individual observation periods the correlations were absent, or were weakly significant in an inconsistent manner (i.e. sometimes positively correlated, sometimes negatively correlated). At the orchard level, abundance of the parasitoid was not correlated with adult fly abundance. Results suggest that D. kraussii forage independently to adult B. tryoni, a result consistent with a prediction that their foraging is largely driven by larval or plant damage cues.

Preference among four Bactrocera species (Diptera: Tephritidae) by Diachasmimorpha kraussii (Fullaway) (Hymenoptera: Braconidae)

Diachasmimorpha kraussii is an endoparasitoid of larval dacine fruit flies. To date, the only host preference study done on D. kraussii has used fruit flies from outside its native range (Australia, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands). In contrast, this paper investigates host preference for four fly species (Bactrocera cacuminata, Bactrocera cucumis, Bactrocera jarvisi and Bactrocera tryoni), which occur sympatrically with the wasp in the Australian component of the native range. D. kraussii oviposition preference, host suitability (parasitism rate, number of progeny, sex ratio) and offspring performance measures (body length, hind tibial length, developmental time) were investigated with respect to the four fly species in the laboratory in both no-choice and choice situations. The parasitoid accepted all four fruit fly species for oviposition in both no-choice and choice tests; however, adult wasps only emerged from B. jarvisi and B. tryoni. Through dissection, it was demonstrated that parasitoid eggs were encapsulated in both B. cacuminata and B. cucumis. Between the two suitable hosts, measurements of oviposition preference, host suitability and offspring performance measurements either did not vary significantly or varied in an inconsistent manner. Based on our results, and a related study by other authors, we conclude that D. krausii, at the point of oviposition, cannot discriminate between physiologically suitable and unsuitable hosts.

Laboratory-rearing Techniques for Tephritid Fruit Flies in the South Pacific

Laboratory colonies of 15 economically important species of multi-host fruit flies (Diptera:Tephritidae) have been established in eight South Pacific island countries for the purpose of undertaking biological studies, particularly host status testing and research on quarantine treatments. Laboratory rearing techniques are based on the development of artificial diets for larvae consisting predominately of the pulp of locally available fruits including pawpaw, breadfruit and banana. The pawpaw diet is the standard diet and is used in seven countries for rearing 11 species. Diet ingredients are standard proportions of fruit pulp, hydrolysed protein and a bacterial and fungal inhibitor. The diet is particularly suitable for post-harvest treatment studies when larvae of known age are required. Another major development in the laboratory rearing system is the use of pure strains of Enterobacteriaceae bacterial cultures as important adult-feeding supplements. These bacterial cultures are dissected out of the crop of wild females, isolated by sub-culturing, and identified before supply to adults on peptone yeast extract agar plates. Most species are egged using thin, plastic receptacles perforated with 1 mm oviposition holes, with fruit juice or larval diet smeared internally as an oviposition stimulant. Laboratory rearing techniques have been standardised for all of the Pacific countries. Quality control monitoring is based on acceptable ranges in per cent egg hatch, pupal weight and pupal mortality. Colonies are rejuvenated every 6 to 12 months by crossing wild males with laboratory-reared females and vice versa. The standard rearing techniques, equipment and ingredients used in collecting, establishment, maintenance and quality control of these fruit fly species are detailed in this paper.

Cat's claw creeper leaf-mining jewel beetle Hylaeogena jureceki Obenberger (Coleoptera: Buprestidae), a host-specific biological control agent for Dolichandra unguis-cati (Bignoniaceae) in Australia

Cat's claw creeper, Dolichandra unguis-cati (L.) L.G. Lohman (syn: Macfadyena unguis-cati (L.) A.H. Gentry) (Bignoniaceae), a major environmental weed in Queensland and New South Wales, is a Weed of National Significance and an approved target for biological control. A leaf-mining jewel beetle, Hylaeogena jureceki Obenberger (Coleoptera: Buprestidae), first collected in 2002 from D. unguis-cati in Brazil and Argentina, was imported from South Africa into a quarantine facility in Brisbane in 2009 for host-specificity testing. H. jureceki adults chew holes in leaves and lay eggs on leaf margins and the emerging larvae mine within the leaves of D. unguis-cati. The generation time (egg to adult) of H. jureceki under quarantine conditions was 55.4 ± 0.2 days. Host-specificity trials conducted in Australia on 38 plant species from 11 families supplement and support South African studies which indicated that H. jureceki is highly host-specific and does not pose a risk to any non-target plant species in Australia. In no-choice tests, adults survived significantly longer (>32 weeks) on D. unguis-cati than on non-target test plant species (<3 weeks). Oviposition occurred on D. unguis-cati and one non-target test plant species, Citharexylum spinosum (Verbenaceae), but no larval development occurred on the latter species. In choice tests involving D. unguis-cati, C. spinosum and Avicennia marina (Avicenniaceae), feeding and oviposition were evident only on D. unguis-cati. The insect was approved for field release in Australia in May 2012.

Biological Control of Oilseed Rape Pests with Entomopathogenic Nematodes

Biological control techniques attract increasing attention as one of the sustainable alternatives to pesticide use in integrated pest management programs. In order to develop sustainable pest management methods for arable crops based on entomopathogenic nematodes (EPN), their efficacy and persistence needed to be investigated, and an economically feasible delivery system had to be developed. In this study, first a survey of entomopathogens was conducted, and a system approach was tested, using the oilseed Brassica (OSB) growing system (OSB, spring wheat, and red clover) as a model. The system approach aimed at determining the potential of Steinernema feltiae (Filipjev) for the control of OSB pests, developing OSB rotation schemes that support EPN persistence, and investigating the impact of the selected biotic and abiotic factors on efficacy and persistence of EPN. This study employed abductive logic (which employs constant interplay between the theory and empirical observation), quantitative methods, and a case study on OSB. Laboratory and field experiments were carried out, and two types of pathogen surveys. A horizontal survey included OSB fields across Estonia, Germany, Poland, Sweden and the UK, while a vertical survey included sampling from two sets of differently managed experimental fields during three years. A new approach was introduced for measuring occurrence, where the prevalence and relative intensity of entomopathogens, biotic agents, and unidentified insect antagonists were determined. The effect of dose, timing, and the application method on S. feltiae in the control of pests in OSB, and the potential of a controlled release delivery system (CRS) were evaluated in the field. Studies on the impact of selected biotic and abiotc factors (Brassica plant, bait insects, developmental stages of Meligethes aeneus Fab., Isaria fumosorosea Wize (Ifr), and organic and synthetic fertilizers) on the efficacy of S. feltiae were conducted in the laboratory. Persistence of S. feltiae in the OSB growing system, and the effect of dose, timing, and the application method, was assessed in the field as part of the efficacy experiments. The impact of selected biotic and abiotic factors on S. feltiae persistence was assessed in laboratory experiments. The pathogen survey showed that the occurrence of entomopathogens is low in the OSB growing system, and that a management system causing less disturbance (ICM) to the soil increases the relative intensity of insect parasitic nematodes and other insect antagonists. A longer study period is required to show any possible impact of ICM on the relative intensity of entomopathogenic fungi, or on the prevalence of entomopathogens. Two different measures of the occurrence yielded different results: the relative intensity revealed the difference between the two different crop management methods, while prevalence did not. The highest efficacy of S. feltiae was achieved by using a low dose and targeting all stages of M. aeneus. When only the larval stage was targeted, the application method and dose had no significant effect. The CRS decreased the pest abundance significantly more than the surface application method. S. feltiae persisted in the OSB fields in Finland for several months, but did not survive the winter. The strain survived for 7 months when it was applied in autumn in Germany, but its populations declined rapidly after winter. The examined biotic and abiotic factors had variable impacts on S. feltiae efficacy and persistence. The two measures, prevalence and relative intensity of entomopathogens, gave valuable information for their use in biocontrol programs. The recommended biocontrol strategy for OSB growing in Finland is inundation and seasonal inoculation of EPN. The impact of some biotic and abiotic factors on S. feltiae efficacy and persistence is significant, and can be used to improve the efficacy of EPN. The CRS is a novel alternative for EPN application, and should also be considered for use on other crops. Keywords: Biological control, inundation, inoculation, conservation, formulation, slow release method, crop rotation, Entomopathogenic nematodes, Steinernema feltiae, oilseed rape pests, Meligethes aeneus, Phyllotreta spp., occurrence, prevalence, intensity, efficacy, persistence, field, Isaria fumosorosea, biotic factors, abiotic factors, interaction, impact, insect stages, integrated crop management, standard (conventional) crop management

Development of cat's claw creeper leaf-tying moth Hypocosmia pyrochroma (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) at different temperatures: Implications for establishment as a biological control agent in Australia and South Africa

The leaf-tying moth Hypocosmia pyrochroma Jones (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), a native of sub tropical South America, has been introduced as a biological control agent for cat’s claw creeper, Dolichandra unguis-cati (L.) Lohman (Bignoniaceae), in Australia and South Africa. So far there has been no evidence of its field establishment in either country. A narrow temperature tolerance is a potential limiting factor for the establishment of weed biological control insects in novel habitats. In this study, we evaluated the effect of seven constant temperatures (12–40 °C) on the survival and development of H. pyrochroma in temperature-controlled cabinets. Temperatures between 20 and 30 °C were the most favorable for adult survival, oviposition, egg hatching, and larval and pupal development. Adult survival (12–40 °C) and egg development (15–35 °C) showed tolerance for wider temperature ranges than oviposition, and larval and pupal development, which were all negatively affected by both high (>30 °C) and low (<20 °C) temperatures. The degree-day (DD) requirement to complete a generation was estimated as 877 above a threshold temperature of 12 °C. Based on DD requirements and an obligatory winter diapause of pupae from mid-autumn to mid-spring, the potential number of generations (egg to adult) the leaf-tying moth can complete in a year in Australia or South Africa range from one to three. A climate-matching model predicted that the inland regions of both Australia and South Africa are less favorable for H. pyrochroma than the coastal areas. The study suggested that H. pyrochroma is more likely to establish in the coastal areas of Australia where most of the cat’s claw creeper infestations occur, than in South Africa where most of the cat’s claw creeper infestations are inland.

Development of cat’s claw creeper leaf-tying moth Hypocosmia pyrochroma (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) at different temperatures: Implications for establishment as a biological control agent in Australia and South Africa

The leaf-tying moth Hypocosmia pyrochroma Jones (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), a native of sub tropical South America, has been introduced as a biological control agent for cat’s claw creeper, Dolichandra unguis-cati (L.) Lohman (Bignoniaceae), in Australia and South Africa. So far there has been no evidence of its field establishment in either country. A narrow temperature tolerance is a potential limiting factor for the establishment of weed biological control insects in novel habitats. In this study, we evaluated the effect of seven constant temperatures (12–40 °C) on the survival and development of H. pyrochroma in temperature-controlled cabinets. Temperatures between 20 and 30 °C were the most favorable for adult survival, oviposition, egg hatching, and larval and pupal development. Adult survival (12–40 °C) and egg development (15–35 °C) showed tolerance for wider temperature ranges than oviposition, and larval and pupal development, which were all negatively affected by both high (>30 °C) and low (<20 °C) temperatures. The degree-day (DD) requirement to complete a generation was estimated as 877 above a threshold temperature of 12 °C. Based on DD requirements and an obligatory winter diapause of pupae from mid-autumn to mid-spring, the potential number of generations (egg to adult) the leaf-tying moth can complete in a year in Australia or South Africa range from one to three. A climate-matching model predicted that the inland regions of both Australia and South Africa are less favorable for H. pyrochroma than the coastal areas. The study suggested that H. pyrochroma is more likely to establish in the coastal areas of Australia where most of the cat’s claw creeper infestations occur, than in South Africa where most of the cat’s claw creeper infestations are inland.

Biological control of western flower thrips, Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande) (Thysanoptera: Thripidae), in gerberas, chrysanthemums and roses

Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande), western flower thrips (WFT), is a major worldwide pest of vegetables and ornamental crops. The biology of WFT was examined on gerberas, chrysanthemums and roses in relation to plant stage (flowering and non-flowering), pupation site, soil moisture and plant parts often inhabited by adult and immature thrips. Four foliage thrips predators ( Transeius montdorensis (Schicha), Orius armatus (Gross), Mallada signata (Schneider) and Neoseiulus cucumeris (Oudemans)) and three soil predators ( Geolaelaps aculeifer (Canestrini), Steinernema feltiae (Filipjev) and Dalotia coriaria (Kraatz)) were studied to determine their ability to reduce the numbers of WFT on gerberas, chrysanthemums and roses. There was no difference in the number of adults that emerged from growing media of high or low moisture content on any host plant. There were also no differences in the total numbers of WFT recaptured from flowering gerberas, chrysanthemums or roses. However, about seven times the number of thrips were collected from flowering chrysanthemums compared with non-flowering chrysanthemums, indicating that the flowering plants were more suitable hosts. Of all thrips recollected, the greatest percentage was immature (larval and pupal) thrips (70%, 71% and 43%) on the flowers for gerberas, chrysanthemums and roses, respectively. The mean percentage of thrips that emerged as adults from the soil was very low (5.31.2, 8.52.9, 20.59.1 and 28.25.6%) on gerberas, flowering and non-flowering chrysanthemums, and roses, respectively. Simultaneous release of foliage and soil predators did not reduce the number of thrips beyond that caused by foliage predators alone. Of the foliage predators, T. montdorensis, O. armatus and N. cucumeris performed best, significantly reducing the numbers of adult and immature thrips on flowers and foliage by 30-99%. Further research is required to determine the most cost-effective rates of release in cut flower crops.