The Role of ULK1 in the Pathophysiology of Osteoarthritis

L'arthrose est la maladie musculo-squelettique la plus commune dans le monde. Elle est l'une des principales causes de douleur et d’incapacité chez les adultes, et elle représente un fardeau considérable sur le système de soins de santé. L'arthrose est une maladie de l’articulation entière, impliquant non seulement le cartilage articulaire, mais aussi la synoviale, les ligaments et l’os sous-chondral. L’arthrose est caractérisée par la dégénérescence progressive du cartilage articulaire, la formation d’ostéophytes, le remodelage de l'os sous-chondral, la détérioration des tendons et des ligaments et l'inflammation de la membrane synoviale. Les traitements actuels aident seulement à soulager les symptômes précoces de la maladie, c’est pour cette raison que l'arthrose est caractérisée par une progression presque inévitable vers la phase terminale de la maladie. La pathogénie exacte de l'arthrose est encore inconnue, mais on sait que l'événement clé est la dégradation du cartilage articulaire. Le cartilage articulaire est composé uniquement des chondrocytes; les cellules responsables de la synthèse de la matrice extracellulaire et du maintien de l'homéostasie du cartilage articulaire. Les chondrocytes maintiennent la matrice du cartilage en remplaçant les macromolécules dégradées et en répondant aux lésions du cartilage et aux dégénérescences focales en augmentant l'activité de synthèse locale. Les chondrocytes ont un taux faible de renouvellement, c’est pour cette raison qu’ils utilisent des mécanismes endogènes tels que l'autophagie (un processus de survie cellulaire et d’adaptation) pour enlever les organelles et les macromolécules endommagés et pour maintenir l'homéostasie du cartilage articulaire. i L'autophagie est une voie de dégradation lysosomale qui est essentielle pour la survie, la différenciation, le développement et l’homéostasie. Elle régule la maturation et favorise la survie des chondrocytes matures sous le stress et des conditions hypoxiques. Des études effectuées par nous et d'autres ont montré qu’un dérèglement de l’autophagie est associé à une diminution de la chondroprotection, à l'augmentation de la mort cellulaire et à la dégénérescence du cartilage articulaire. Carames et al ont montré que l'autophagie est constitutivement exprimée dans le cartilage articulaire humain normal. Toutefois, l'expression des inducteurs principaux de l'autophagie est réduite dans le vieux cartilage. Nos études précédentes ont également identifié des principaux gènes de l’autophagie qui sont exprimés à des niveaux plus faibles dans le cartilage humain atteint de l'arthrose. Les mêmes résultats ont été montrés dans le cartilage articulaire provenant des modèles de l’arthrose expérimentaux chez la souris et le chien. Plus précisément, nous avons remarqué que l'expression d’Unc-51 like kinase-1 (ULK1) est faible dans cartilage humain atteint de l'arthrose et des modèles expérimentaux de l’arthrose. ULK1 est la sérine / thréonine protéine kinase et elle est l’inducteur principal de l’autophagie. La perte de l’expression de ULK1 se traduit par un niveau d’autophagie faible. Etant donné qu’une signalisation adéquate de l'autophagie est nécessaire pour maintenir la chondroprotection ainsi que l'homéostasie du cartilage articulaire, nous avons proposé l’hypothèse suivante : une expression adéquate de ULK1 est requise pour l’induction de l’autophagie dans le cartilage articulaire et une perte de cette expression se traduira par une diminution de la chondroprotection, et une augmentation de la mort des chondrocytes ce qui conduit à la dégénérescence du cartilage articulaire. Le rôle exact de ULK1 dans la pathogénie de l'arthrose est inconnue, j’ai alors créé pour la première fois, des souris KO ULK1spécifiquement dans le cartilage en utilisant la technologie Cre-Lox et j’ai ensuite soumis ces souris à la déstabilisation du ménisque médial (DMM), un modèle de l'arthrose de la souris pour élucider le rôle spécifique in vivo de ULK1 dans pathogenèse de l'arthrose. Mes résultats montrent que ULK1 est essentielle pour le maintien de l'homéostasie du cartilage articulaire. Plus précisément, je montre que la perte de ULK1 dans le cartilage articulaire a causé un phénotype de l’arthrose accéléré, associé à la dégénérescence accélérée du cartilage, l’augmentation de la mort cellulaire des chondrocytes, et l’augmentation de l'expression des facteurs cataboliques. En utilisant des chondrocytes provenant des patients atteints de l’arthrose et qui ont été transfectées avec le plasmide d'expression ULK1, je montre qu’ULK1 est capable de réduire l’expression de la protéine mTOR (principal régulateur négatif de l’autophagie) et de diminuer l’expression des facteurs cataboliques comme MMP-13 et ADAMTS-5 et COX-2. Mes résultats jusqu'à présent indiquent que ULK1 est une cible thérapeutique potentielle pour maintenir l'homéostasie du cartilage articulaire.

L'implication de la Cycline B dans le processus de cytocinèse

Un dérèglement du cycle cellulaire peut causer le cancer. Lors de la cytocinèse un anneau contractile d’actine et de myosine se forme, se contracte, et donne un anneau du midbody qui mène à l’abscision. Le processus de cytocinèse est sous le contrôle de protéines telles que la GTPase Rho qui active la cytocinèse et les cyclines-Cdks qui l'inhibent. La Drosophile possède 3 cyclines mitotiques CycA/ CycB/ CycB3 qui sont successivement dégradées en fin de mitose et permettent l'initiation de la cytocinèse. La dernière étape d’abscission est un phénomène qui reste encore peu connu. Les protéines Vps4 et CHMP4C liées à ANCHR vont, sous la dépendance de la kinase Aurora B, promouvoir l’abscision mais, suite à quelques études récentes, il semble y avoir une implication de la cycline B. Ici, le but était de tester l’implication de cette cycline dans les processus de cytocinèse et d’abscision, elle a été menée par microscopie à haute résolution en temps réel avec des cellules S2 de l’organisme Drosophila melanogaster par le suivi de protéines recombinantes fluorescentes. L’étude a été divisée en deux axes : gain et perte de fonction par l’intermédiaire respectivement de la protéine Cycline B recombinante stable, non dégradable (CycBstable-GFP) et l’inhibition par l’utilisation d’ARN double brin (ARNdb) sur l’endogène. La CycBstable-GFP a perturbé la cytocinèse en induisant plusieurs anneaux contractiles et midbodies. En revanche la réduction de l’expression de CycB n'a pas eu d’effet observable, et elle ne semble pas avoir d’action sur l’abscission malgré le recrutement de CycB-GFP au midbody tardif. En revanche la protéine Cdk1 semble avoir un rôle dans l'abscision puisque sa réduction d’expression a induit un délai. Elle a donc une implication potentielle sur la cytocinèse.

Biochemical Investigations on the Stability of Biological Membranes

In this project, an attempt has been made to study the stability of erythrocyte and lysosomal membranes biochemically. Erythrocytes were chosen for the study because of their ready availability and relative simplicity. Biological membranes forming closed boundaries between compartments of varying composition consist mainly of proteins and lipids. They are asymmetric, fluid structures that are thermodynamically stable and metabolically active. Normal cellular function begins with normal membrane structure and any variation in it may upset the normal functions. The degree of fluidity of a membrane depends on the chain length of its lipids and degree of unsaturation of constituent fatty acids. In response to environmental changes, many cells can regulate composition of their membranes to maintain the overall semi fluid environment necessary for many membrane associated functions. The assembly and Maintenance of membrane structures in cells is a dynamic process. The components are not only synthesized and inserted into a growing membrane but are also continuously degraded at a slower rate. This turnover process varies with each individual molecule.Lysosomes are important in the catabolic processes occurring in the cell. Lysosomes contain hydrolytic enzymes and are stable under normal conditions. In certain pathological conditions, the lysosomal membrane may rupture, releasing the hydrolytic enzymes into the cell and digestion of cell takes place as a whole. This is very dangerous. In normal life processes of multi cellular organisms, lysosomes rupture following the death of a cell and it may have some value as a built in mechanism for selfremoval of dead cells.An attempt has also been made in this project towards developing lysosome membrane stability as an index of fish spoilage during storage. Different membranes within the cell and between cells have different compositions as reflected in the ratio of protein to lipid. The difference is not surprising given the very different functions of membranes

Studies on Latex Reclaim and its Blends

The primary aim of this work has been to develop a cost effective process that can be operated at room temperature for developing latex reclaim with superior mechanical properties. With this objective in mind the researcher proposes to study the reclaiming action of four different chemicals on latex products waste. Waste latex products are chosen because it has a higher potential to generate good quality rubber hydrocarbon since all latex products are based on either high quality concentrated latex or creamed latex. Moreover, all latex products are only lightly crosslinked and not masticated and hence not mechanically degraded. The author also proposes to fully explore the possible application of latex reclaim in various fields..

Assessment of trophic change and its probable impact on tropical estuarine environment (the Kodungallur-Azhikode estuary, India)

The cumulative effects of global change, including climate change, increased population density and domestic waste disposal, effluent discharges from industrial processes, agriculture and aquaculture will likely continue and increases the process of eutrophication in estuarine environments. Eutrophication is one of the leading causes of degraded water quality, water column hypoxia/anoxia, harmful algal bloom (HAB) and loss of habitat and species diversity in the estuarine environment. The present study attempts to characterize the trophic condition of coastal estuary using a simple tool; trophic index (TRIX) based on a linear combination of the log of four state variables with supplementary index Efficiency Coefficient (Eff. Coeff.) as a discriminating tool. Numerically, the index TRIX is scaled from 0 to10, covering a wide range of trophic conditions from oligotrophic to eutrophic. Study area Kodungallur-Azhikode Estuary (KAE) was comparatively shallow in nature with average depth of 3.6±0.2 m. Dissolve oxygen regime in the water column was ranged from 4.7±1.3 mgL−1 in Station I to 5.9±1.4 mgL−1 in Station IV. The average nitrate-nitrogen (NO3-N) of KAE water was 470 mg m−3; values ranged from Av. 364.4 mg m−3 at Station II to Av. 626.6 mg m−3at Station VII. The mean ammonium-nitrogen (NH4 +-N) varied from 54.1 mg m−3 at Station VII to 101 mg m−3 at Station III. The average Chl-a for the seven stations of KAE was 6.42±3.91 mg m−3. Comparisons over different spatial and temporal scales in the KAE and study observed that, estuary experiencing high productivity by the influence of high degree of eutrophication; an annual average of 6.91 TRIX was noticed in the KAE and seasonal highest was observed during pre monsoon period (7.15) and lowest during post monsoon period (6.51). In the spatial scale station V showed high value 7.37 and comparatively low values in the station VI (6.93) and station VII (6.96) and which indicates eutrophication was predominant in land cover area with comparatively high water residence time. Eff. Coeff. values in the KAE ranges from −2.74 during monsoon period to the lowest of −1.98 in pre monsoon period. Present study revealed that trophic state of the estuary under severe stress and the restriction of autochthonous and allochthonous nutrient loading should be keystone in mitigate from eutrophication process

Faster techniques to evolve wavelet coefficients for better fingerprint image compression

In this article, techniques have been presented for faster evolution of wavelet lifting coefficients for fingerprint image compression (FIC). In addition to increasing the computational speed by 81.35%, the coefficients performed much better than the reported coefficients in literature. Generally, full-size images are used for evolving wavelet coefficients, which is time consuming. To overcome this, in this work, wavelets were evolved with resized, cropped, resized-average and cropped-average images. On comparing the peak- signal-to-noise-ratios (PSNR) offered by the evolved wavelets, it was found that the cropped images excelled the resized images and is in par with the results reported till date. Wavelet lifting coefficients evolved from an average of four 256 256 centre-cropped images took less than 1/5th the evolution time reported in literature. It produced an improvement of 1.009 dB in average PSNR. Improvement in average PSNR was observed for other compression ratios (CR) and degraded images as well. The proposed technique gave better PSNR for various bit rates, with set partitioning in hierarchical trees (SPIHT) coder. These coefficients performed well with other fingerprint databases as well.

Evolution of Better Wavelet Coefficients for Fingerprint Image Compression using cropped images

This paper explains the Genetic Algorithm (GA) evolution of optimized wavelet that surpass the cdf9/7 wavelet for fingerprint compression and reconstruction. Optimized wavelets have already been evolved in previous works in the literature, but they are highly computationally complex and time consuming. Therefore, in this work, a simple approach is made to reduce the computational complexity of the evolution algorithm. A training image set comprised of three 32x32 size cropped images performed much better than the reported coefficients in literature. An average improvement of 1.0059 dB in PSNR above the classical cdf9/7 wavelet over the 80 fingerprint images was achieved. In addition, the computational speed was increased by 90.18 %. The evolved coefficients for compression ratio (CR) 16:1 yielded better average PSNR for other CRs also. Improvement in average PSNR was experienced for degraded and noisy images as well

Characterization of Linear Low-Density Polyethylene/ Poly(vinyl alcohol) Blends and Their Biodegradability by Vibrio sp. Isolated from Marine Benthic Environment

Increasing amounts of plastic waste in the environment have become a problem of gigantic proportions. The case of linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE) is especially significant as it is widely used for packaging and other applications. This synthetic polymer is normally not biodegradable until it is degraded into low molecular mass fragments that can be assimilated by microorganisms. Blends of nonbiodegradable polymers and biodegradable commercial polymers such as poly (vinyl alcohol) (PVA) can facilitate a reduction in the volume of plastic waste when they undergo partial degradation. Further, the remaining fragments stand a greater chance of undergoing biodegradation in a much shorter span of time. In this investigation, LLDPE was blended with different proportions of PVA (5–30%) in a torque rheometer. Mechanical, thermal, and biodegradation studies were carried out on the blends. The biodegradability of LLDPE/PVA blends has been studied in two environments: (1) in a culture medium containing Vibrio sp. and (2) soil environment, both over a period of 15 weeks. Blends exposed to culture medium degraded more than that exposed to soil environment. Changes in various properties of LLDPE/PVA blends before and after degradation were monitored using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, a differential scanning calorimeter (DSC) for crystallinity, and scanning electron microscope (SEM) for surface morphology among other things. Percentage crystallinity decreased as the PVA content increased and biodegradation resulted in an increase of crystallinity in LLDPE/PVA blends. The results prove that partial biodegradation of the blends has occurred holding promise for an eventual biodegradable product

Dieselmotor-Kraft-Wärme-Kopplungsanlagen im Kontext der Integration Erneuerbarer Energien in die Energieversorgung

In dieser Arbeit werden die sich abzeichnenden zukünftigen Möglichkeiten, Stärken und Schwächen der Kraft-Wärme-Kopplung (KWK) untersucht. Dies geschieht vor dem Hintergrund des Klimawandels, der Integration steigender Anteile Erneuerbarer Energien in die Stromerzeugung und unter Berücksichtigung der sich damit ergebenden Herausforderungen, eine sichere und nachhaltige Stromversorgung zu gestalten. Der Fokus liegt auf der Dieselmotor-KWK und der Nutzung nachwachsender Kraftstoffe. Es wird davon ausgegangen, dass der Übergang zu einer reinen Stromerzeugung aus Erneuerbaren Energiequellen in Deutschland unter erheblicher Einbindung des hohen Potentials der kostengünstigen, umweltfreundlichen, aber in der Leistung extrem fluktuierenden Windenergie erfolgen wird. Als dezentrales Integrationswerkzeug wurde die Kraft-Wärme-Kopplung mit Dieselmotoren untersucht. Sie entspricht aufgrund ihrer großen Flexibilität und ihrer hohen Wirkungsgrade mit vergleichsweise kleinen Leistungen sehr gut den Anforderungen der gleichzeitigen dezentralen Wärmenutzung. In der Dissertation werden die Randbedingungen der Dieselmotor-KWK untersucht und beschrieben. Darauf aufbauend werden unterschiedliche Modelle der Windintegration durch KWK erarbeitet und in diversen Variationen wird der Ausgleich der Stromerzeugung aus Windenergie durch KWK simuliert. Darüber hinaus werden dezentrale KWK-Anlagen hinsichtlich eines koordinierten gemeinsamen Betriebs und hinsichtlich der optimalen Auslegung für den Windenergieausgleich betrachtet. Es wird für den beschriebenen Kontext der Erneuerbaren Energien und der Kraft-Wärme-Kopplung das Thema „Umweltwirkungen“ diskutiert. Es wird dargelegt, dass die heute verwendeten Ansätze zur Bewertung der KWK zu einer Verzerrung der Ergebnisse führen. Demgegenüber wurde mit der so genannten Outputmethode eine Methode der Ökobilanzierung vorgestellt, die, im Gegensatz zu den anderen Methoden, keine verzerrenden Annahmen in die Wirkungsabschätzung aufnimmt und somit eine eindeutige und rein wissenschaftliche Auswertung bleibt. Hiermit ist die Grundlage für die Bewertung der unterschiedlichen Technologien und Szenarien sowie für die Einordnung der KWK in den Kontext der Energieerzeugung gegeben. Mit der Outputmethode wird u.a. rechnerisch bewiesen, dass die gekoppelte Strom- und Wärmeerzeugung in KWK-Anlagen tatsächlich die optimale Nutzung der regenerativen Kraftstoffe „Biogas“ und „Pflanzenöl“ im Hinblick auf Ressourceneinsatz, Treibhausgaseinsparung und Exergieerzeugung ist. Es wurde darüber hinaus die Frage untersucht woher die für die Stromerzeugung durch Dieselmotor-KWK-Anlagen notwendige Bioenergie genommen werden kann. Es ist erwiesen, dass die in Deutschland nutzbare landwirtschaftliche Fläche nur zur Deckung eines Teils der Stromerzeugung ausreichen würde. Einheimisches Biogas und nachhaltiges importiertes Pflanzenöl, das in hohem Maße auf degradierten Böden angebaut werden sollte, können die notwendige Brennstoffenergie liefern. Um im Ausland ausreichend Pflanzenöl herstellen zu können, wird eine landwirtschaftliche Fläche von 6 bis 12 Mio. ha benötigt. Das Ergebnis ist, dass ein voller Ausgleich von Windenergie-Restlast durch KWK mit Erneuerbaren Energieträgern sinnvoll und machbar ist! Dieses Wind-KWK-DSM-System sollte durch ein Stromnetz ergänzt sein, das Wasserkraftstrom für den Großteil der Regelenergieaufgaben nutzt, und das den großräumigen Ausgleich Erneuerbarer Energien in Europa und den Nachbarregionen ermöglicht.

Assessment of land use and land cover changes during the last 50 years in oases and surrounding rangelands of Xinjiang, NW China

An analysis of historical Corona images, Landsat images, recent radar and Google Earth® images was conducted to determine land use and land cover changes of oases settlements and surrounding rangelands at the fringe of the Altay Mountains from 1964 to 2008. For the Landsat datasets supervised classification methods were used to test the suitability of the Maximum Likelihood Classifier with subsequent smoothing and the Sequential Maximum A Posteriori Classifier (SMAPC). The results show a trend typical for the steppe and desert regions of northern China. From 1964 to 2008 farmland strongly increased (+ 61%), while the area of grassland and forest in the floodplains decreased (- 43%). The urban areas increased threefold and 400 ha of former agricultural land were abandoned. Farmland apparently affected by soil salinity decreased in size from 1990 (1180 ha) to 2008 (630 ha). The vegetated areas of the surrounding rangelands decreased, mainly as a result of overgrazing and drought events.The SMAPC with subsequent post processing revealed the highest classification accuracy. However, the specific landscape characteristics of mountain oasis systems required labour intensive post processing. Further research is needed to test the use of ancillary information for an automated classification of the examined landscape features.

The role of ligneous vegetation for livestock nutrition in the sub-Sahelian and Sudanian zones of West Africa: Potential effects of climate change

Climate change and variability in sub-Saharan West Africa is expected to have negative consequences for crop and livestock farming due to the strong dependence of these sectors on rainfall and natural resources, and the low adaptive capacity of crops farmers, agro-pastoralist and pastoralists in the region. The objective of this PhD research was to investigate the anticipated impacts of expected future climate change and variability on nutrition and grazing management of livestock in the prevailing extensive agro-pastoral and pastoral systems of the Sahelian and Sudanian zones of Burkina Faso. To achieve this, three studies were undertaken in selected village territories (100 km² each) in the southern Sahelian (Taffogo), northern Sudanian (Nobere, Safane) and southern Sudanian (Sokouraba) zone of the country during 2009 and 2010. The choice of two villages in the northern Sudanian zone was guided by the dichotomy between intense agricultural land use and high population density near Safane, and lower agricultural land use in the tampon zone between the village of Nobere and the National Park Kaboré Tambi of Pô. Using global positioning and geographical information systems tools, the spatio-temporal variation in the use of grazing areas by cattle, sheep and goats, and in their foraging behaviour in the four villages was assessed by monitoring three herds each per species during a one-year cycle (Chapter 2). Maximum itinerary lengths (km/d) were observed in the hot dry season (March-May); they were longer for sheep (18.8) and cattle (17.4) than for goats (10.5, p<0.05). Daily total grazing time spent on pasture ranged from 6 - 11 h with cattle staying longer on pasture than small ruminants (p<0.05). Feeding time accounted for 52% - 72% of daily time on pasture, irrespective of species. Herds spent longer time on pasture and walked farther distances in the southern Sahelian than the two Sudanian zones (p<0.01), while daily feeding time was longer in the southern Sudanian than in the other two zones (p>0.05). Proportional time spent resting decreased from the rainy (June - October) to the cool (November - February) and hot dry season (p<0.05), while in parallel the proportion of walking time increased. Feeding time of all species was to a significantly high proportion spent on wooded land (tree crown cover 5-10%, or shrub cover >10%) in the southern Sahelian zone, and on forest land (tree crown cover >10%) in the two Sudanian zones, irrespective of season. It is concluded that with the expansion of cropland in the whole region, remaining islands of wooded land, including also fields fallowed for three or more years with their considerable shrub cover, are particularly valuable pasturing areas for ruminant stock. Measures must be taken that counteract the shrinking of wooded land and forests across the whole region, including also active protection and (re)establishment of drought-tolerant fodder trees. Observation of the selection behaviour of the above herds of cattle and small ruminant as far as browse species were concerned, and interviews with 75 of Fulani livestock keepers on use of browse as feed by their ruminant stock and as remedies for animal disease treatment was undertaken (Chapter 3) in order to evaluate the consequence of climate change for the contribution of browse to livestock nutrition and animal health in the extensive grazing-based livestock systems. The results indicated that grazing cattle and small ruminants do make considerable use of browse species on pasture across the studied agro-ecological zones. Goats spent more time (p<0.01) feeding on browse species than sheep and cattle, which spent a low to moderate proportion of their feeding time on browsing in any of the study sites. As far as the agro-ecological zones were concerned, the contribution of browse species to livestock nutrition was more important in the southern Sahelian and northern Sudanian zone than the southern Sudanian zone, and this contribution is higher during the cold and hot dry season than during the rainy season. A total of 75 browse species were selected on pasture year around, whereby cattle strongly preferred Afzelia africana, Pterocarpus erinaceus and Piliostigma sp., while sheep and goats primarily fed on Balanites aegyptiaca, Ziziphus mauritiana and Acacia sp. Crude protein concentration (in DM) of pods or fruits of the most important browse species selected by goats, sheep and cattle ranged from 7% to 13% for pods, and from 10% to 18% for foliage. The concentration of digestible organic matter of preferred browse species mostly ranged from 40% to 60%, and the concentrations of total phenols, condensed tannins and acid detergent lignin were low. Linear regression analyses showed that browse preference on pasture is strongly related to its contents (% of DM) of CP, ADF, NDF and OM digestibility. Interviewed livestock keepers reported that browse species are increasingly use by their grazing animals, while for animal health care use of tree- and shrub-based remedies decreased over the last two decades. It is concluded that due to climate change with expected negative impact on the productivity of the herbaceous layer of communal pastures browse fodder will gain in importance for animal nutrition. Therefore re-establishment and dissemination of locally adapted browse species preferred by ruminants is needed to increase the nutritional situation of ruminant stock in the region and contribute to species diversity and soil fertility restoration in degraded pasture areas. In Chapter 4 a combination of household surveys and participatory research approaches was used in the four villages, and additionally in the village of Zogoré (southern Sahelian zone) and of Karangasso Vigué (northern Sudanian zone) to investigate pastoralists’ (n= 76) and agro-pastoralists’ (n= 83) perception of climate change, and their adaptation strategies in crop and livestock production at farm level. Across the three agro-ecological zones, the majority of the interviewees perceived an increase in maximum day temperatures and decrease of total annual rainfall over the last two decades. Perceptions of change in climate patterns were in line with meteorological data for increased temperatures while for total rainfall farmers’ views contrasted the rainfall records which showed a slight increase of precipitation. According to all interviewees climate change and variability have negative impacts on their crop and animal husbandry, and most of them already adopted some coping and adaptation strategies at farm level to secure their livelihoods and reduce negative impacts on their farming system. Although these strategies are valuable and can help crop and livestock farmers to cope with the recurrent droughts and climate variability, they are not effective against expected extreme climate events. Governmental and non-governmental organisations should develop effective policies and strategies at local, regional and national level to support farmers in their endeavours to cope with climate change phenomena; measures should be site-specific and take into account farmers’ experiences and strategies already in place.

Diversity, local uses and availability of medicinal plants and wild yams in the Mahafaly region of south-western Madagascar

Short summary: This study was undertaken to assess the diversity of plant resources utilized by the local population in south-western Madagascar, the social, ecological and biophysical conditions that drive their uses and availability, and possible alternative strategies for their sustainable use in the region. The study region, ‘Mahafaly region’, located in south-western Madagascar, is one of the country’s most economically, educationally and climatically disadvantaged regions. With an arid steppe climate, the agricultural production is limited by low water availability and a low level of soil nutrients and soil organic carbon. The region comprises the recently extended Tsimanampetsotsa National Park, with numerous sacred and communities forests, which are threatened by slash and burn agriculture and overexploitation of forests resources. The present study analyzed the availability of wild yams and medicinal plants, and their importance for the livelihood of the local population in this region. An ethnobotanical survey was conducted recording the diversity, local knowledge and use of wild yams and medicinal plants utilized by the local communities in five villages in the Mahafaly region. 250 households were randomly selected followed by semi-structured interviews on the socio-economic characteristics of the households. Data allowed us to characterize sociocultural and socioeconomic factors that determine the local use of wild yams and medicinal plants, and to identify their role in the livelihoods of local people. Species-environment relationships and the current spatial distribution of the wild yams were investigated and predicted using ordination methods and a niche based habitat modelling approach. Species response curves along edaphic gradients allowed us to understand the species requirements on habitat conditions. We thus investigated various alternative methods to enhance the wild yam regeneration for their local conservation and their sustainable use in the Mahafaly region. Altogether, six species of wild yams and a total of 214 medicinal plants species from 68 families and 163 genera were identified in the study region. Results of the cluster and discriminant analysis indicated a clear pattern on resource, resulted in two groups of household and characterized by differences in livestock numbers, off-farm activities, agricultural land and harvests. A generalized linear model highlighted that economic factors significantly affect the collection intensity of wild yams, while the use of medicinal plants depends to a higher degree on socio-cultural factors. The gradient analysis on the distribution of the wild yam species revealed a clear pattern for species habitats. Species models based on NPMR (Nonparametric Multiplicative Regression analysis) indicated the importance of vegetation structure, human interventions, and soil characteristics to determine wild yam species distribution. The prediction of the current availability of wild yam resources showed that abundant wild yam resources are scarce and face high harvest intensity. Experiments on yams cultivation revealed that germination of seeds was enhanced by using pre-germination treatments before planting, vegetative regeneration performed better with the upper part of the tubers (corms) rather than the sets of tubers. In-situ regeneration was possible for the upper parts of the wild tubers but the success depended significantly on the type of soil. The use of manure (10-20 t ha¹) increased the yield of the D. alata and D. alatipes by 40%. We thus suggest the promotion of other cultivated varieties of D. alata found regions neighbouring as the Mahafaly Plateau.

Detecting Faces in Impoverished Images

The ability to detect faces in images is of critical ecological significance. It is a pre-requisite for other important face perception tasks such as person identification, gender classification and affect analysis. Here we address the question of how the visual system classifies images into face and non-face patterns. We focus on face detection in impoverished images, which allow us to explore information thresholds required for different levels of performance. Our experimental results provide lower bounds on image resolution needed for reliable discrimination between face and non-face patterns and help characterize the nature of facial representations used by the visual system under degraded viewing conditions. Specifically, they enable an evaluation of the contribution of luminance contrast, image orientation and local context on face-detection performance.

Role of color in face recognition

One of the key challenges in face perception lies in determining the contribution of different cues to face identification. In this study, we focus on the role of color cues. Although color appears to be a salient attribute of faces, past research has suggested that it confers little recognition advantage for identifying people. Here we report experimental results suggesting that color cues do play a role in face recognition and their contribution becomes evident when shape cues are degraded. Under such conditions, recognition performance with color images is significantly better than that with grayscale images. Our experimental results also indicate that the contribution of color may lie not so much in providing diagnostic cues to identity as in aiding low-level image-analysis processes such as segmentation.

Relative Contributions of Internal and External Features to Face Recognition

The central challenge in face recognition lies in understanding the role different facial features play in our judgments of identity. Notable in this regard are the relative contributions of the internal (eyes, nose and mouth) and external (hair and jaw-line) features. Past studies that have investigated this issue have typically used high-resolution images or good-quality line drawings as facial stimuli. The results obtained are therefore most relevant for understanding the identification of faces at close range. However, given that real-world viewing conditions are rarely optimal, it is also important to know how image degradations, such as loss of resolution caused by large viewing distances, influence our ability to use internal and external features. Here, we report experiments designed to address this issue. Our data characterize how the relative contributions of internal and external features change as a function of image resolution. While we replicated results of previous studies that have shown internal features of familiar faces to be more useful for recognition than external features at high resolution, we found that the two feature sets reverse in importance as resolution decreases. These results suggest that the visual system uses a highly non-linear cue-fusion strategy in combining internal and external features along the dimension of image resolution and that the configural cues that relate the two feature sets play an important role in judgments of facial identity.