Differential expression of HIF-1α in CD44+CD24-/low breast ductal carcinomas

Abstract Background Cancer stem cell (CSC) hypothesis postulates that tumors are maintained by a self-renewing CSC population that is also capable of differentiating into non-self-renewing cell populations that constitute the bulk of tumor. Stem cells renewal and differentiation can be directly influenced by the oxygen levels of determined tissues, probably by the reduction of oxidative DNA damage in hypoxic regions, thus leading to a friendlier microenvironment, regarding to clonal expansion and for resistance to chemotherapeutic regimens. Furthermore, there have been strong data indicating a pivotal role of hypoxic niche in cancer stem cells development. There are evidence that hypoxia could drive the maintenance of CSC, via HIF-1α expression, but it still to be determined whether hypoxia markers are expressed in breast tumors presenting CD44+CD24-/low immunophenotype. Methods Immunohistochemical analysis of CD44+CD24-/low expression and its relationship with hypoxia markers and clinical outcome were evaluated in 253 samples of breast ductal carcinomas. Double-immunolabeling was performed using EnVision Doublestain System (Dako, Carpinteria, CA, USA). Slides were then scanned into high-resolution images using Aperio ScanScope XT and then, visualized in the software Image Scope (Aperio, Vista, CA, USA). Results In univariate analysis, CD44+CD24-/low expression showed association with death due to breast cancer (p = 0.035). Breast tumors expressing CD44+CD24-/low immunophenotype showed relationship with HIF-1α (p = 0.039) and negativity for HER-2 (p = 0.013). Conclusion Considering that there are strong evidences that the fraction of a tumour considered to be cancer stem cells is plastic depending upon microenvironmental signals, our findings provide further evidence that hypoxia might be related to the worse prognosis found in CD44+CD24-/low positive breast tumors.

Physical training prevents body weight gain but does not modify adipose tissue gene expression

The relationship of body weight (BW) with white adipose tissue (WAT) mass and WAT gene expression pattern was investigated in mice submitted to physical training (PT). Adult male C57BL/6 mice were submitted to two 1.5-h daily swimming sessions (T, N = 18), 5 days/week for 4 weeks or maintained sedentary (S, N = 15). Citrate synthase activity increased significantly in the T group (P < 0.05). S mice had a substantial weight gain compared to T mice (4.06 ± 0.43 vs 0.38 ± 0.28 g, P < 0.01). WAT mass, adipocyte size, and the weights of gastrocnemius and soleus muscles, lung, kidney, and adrenal gland were not different. Liver and heart were larger and the spleen was smaller in T compared to S mice (P < 0.05). Food intake was higher in T than S mice (4.7 ± 0.2 vs 4.0 ± 0.3 g/animal, P < 0.05) but oxygen consumption at rest did not differ between groups. T animals showed higher serum leptin concentration compared to S animals (6.37 ± 0.5 vs 3.11 ± 0.12 ng/mL). WAT gene expression pattern obtained by transcription factor adipocyte determination and differentiation-dependent factor 1, fatty acid synthase, malic enzyme, hormone-sensitive lipase, adipocyte lipid binding protein, leptin, and adiponectin did not differ significantly between groups. Collectively, our results showed that PT prevents BW gain and maintains WAT mass due to an increase in food intake and unchanged resting metabolic rate. These responses are closely related to unchanged WAT gene expression patterns.

Global transcriptional response of Caulobacter crescentus to iron availability

BACKGROUND: In the alpha subclass of proteobacteria iron homeostasis is controlled by diverse iron responsive regulators. Caulobacter crescentus, an important freshwater α-proteobacterium, uses the ferric uptake repressor (Fur) for such purpose. However, the impact of the iron availability on the C. crescentus transcriptome and an overall perspective of the regulatory networks involved remain unknown. RESULTS: In this work we report the identification of iron-responsive and Fur-regulated genes in C. crescentus using microarray-based global transcriptional analyses. We identified 42 genes that were strongly upregulated both by mutation of fur and by iron limitation condition. Among them, there are genes involved in iron uptake (four TonB-dependent receptor gene clusters, and feoAB), riboflavin biosynthesis and genes encoding hypothetical proteins. Most of these genes are associated with predicted Fur binding sites, implicating them as direct targets of Fur-mediated repression. These data were validated by β-galactosidase and EMSA assays for two operons encoding putative transporters. The role of Fur as a positive regulator is also evident, given that 27 genes were downregulated both by mutation of fur and under low-iron condition. As expected, this group includes many genes involved in energy metabolism, mostly iron-using enzymes. Surprisingly, included in this group are also TonB-dependent receptors genes and the genes fixK, fixT and ftrB encoding an oxygen signaling network required for growth during hypoxia. Bioinformatics analyses suggest that positive regulation by Fur is mainly indirect. In addition to the Fur modulon, iron limitation altered expression of 113 more genes, including induction of genes involved in Fe-S cluster assembly, oxidative stress and heat shock response, as well as repression of genes implicated in amino acid metabolism, chemotaxis and motility. CONCLUSIONS: Using a global transcriptional approach, we determined the C. crescentus iron stimulon. Many but not all of iron responsive genes were directly or indirectly controlled by Fur. The iron limitation stimulon overlaps with other regulatory systems, such as the RpoH and FixK regulons. Altogether, our results showed that adaptation of C. crescentus to iron limitation not only involves increasing the transcription of iron-acquisition systems and decreasing the production of iron-using proteins, but also includes novel genes and regulatory mechanisms

Acclimatization to 4100 m does not change capillary density or mRNA expression of potential angiogenesis regulatory factors in human skeletal muscle

[EN] Increased skeletal muscle capillary density would be a logical adaptive mechanism to chronic hypoxic exposure. However, animal studies have yielded conflicting results, and human studies are sparse. Neoformation of capillaries is dependent on endothelial growth factors such as vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), a known target gene for hypoxia inducible factor 1 (HIF-1). We hypothesised that prolonged exposure to high altitude increases muscle capillary density and that this can be explained by an enhanced HIF-1alpha expression inducing an increase in VEGF expression. We measured mRNA levels and capillary density in muscle biopsies from vastus lateralis obtained in sea level residents (SLR; N=8) before and after 2 and 8 weeks of exposure to 4100 m altitude and in Bolivian Aymara high-altitude natives exposed to approximately 4100 m altitude (HAN; N=7). The expression of HIF-1alpha or VEGF mRNA was not changed with prolonged hypoxic exposure in SLR, and both genes were similarly expressed in SLR and HAN. In SLR, whole body mass, mean muscle fibre area and capillary to muscle fibre ratio remained unchanged during acclimatization. The capillary to fibre ratio was lower in HAN than in SLR (2.4+/-0.1 vs 3.6+/-0.2; P<0.05). In conclusion, human muscle VEGF mRNA expression and capillary density are not significantly increased by 8 weeks of exposure to high altitude and are not increased in Aymara high-altitude natives compared with sea level residents.

Mass spectrometry-based protein profiling strategies for biomarker discovery in liver and inflammatory bowel diseases

The study of protein expression profiles for biomarker discovery in serum and in mammalian cell populations needs the continuous improvement and combination of proteins/peptides separation techniques, mass spectrometry, statistical and bioinformatic approaches. In this thesis work two different mass spectrometry-based protein profiling strategies have been developed and applied to liver and inflammatory bowel diseases (IBDs) for the discovery of new biomarkers. The first of them, based on bulk solid-phase extraction combined with matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization - Time of Flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) and chemometric analysis of serum samples, was applied to the study of serum protein expression profiles both in IBDs (Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis) and in liver diseases (cirrhosis, hepatocellular carcinoma, viral hepatitis). The approach allowed the enrichment of serum proteins/peptides due to the high interaction surface between analytes and solid phase and the high recovery due to the elution step performed directly on the MALDI-target plate. Furthermore the use of chemometric algorithm for the selection of the variables with higher discriminant power permitted to evaluate patterns of 20-30 proteins involved in the differentiation and classification of serum samples from healthy donors and diseased patients. These proteins profiles permit to discriminate among the pathologies with an optimum classification and prediction abilities. In particular in the study of inflammatory bowel diseases, after the analysis using C18 of 129 serum samples from healthy donors and Crohn’s disease, ulcerative colitis and inflammatory controls patients, a 90.7% of classification ability and a 72.9% prediction ability were obtained. In the study of liver diseases (hepatocellular carcinoma, viral hepatitis and cirrhosis) a 80.6% of prediction ability was achieved using IDA-Cu(II) as extraction procedure. The identification of the selected proteins by MALDITOF/ TOF MS analysis or by their selective enrichment followed by enzymatic digestion and MS/MS analysis may give useful information in order to identify new biomarkers involved in the diseases. The second mass spectrometry-based protein profiling strategy developed was based on a label-free liquid chromatography electrospray ionization quadrupole - time of flight differential analysis approach (LC ESI-QTOF MS), combined with targeted MS/MS analysis of only identified differences. The strategy was used for biomarker discovery in IBDs, and in particular of Crohn’s disease. The enriched serum peptidome and the subcellular fractions of intestinal epithelial cells (IECs) from healthy donors and Crohn’s disease patients were analysed. The combining of the low molecular weight serum proteins enrichment step and the LCMS approach allowed to evaluate a pattern of peptides derived from specific exoprotease activity in the coagulation and complement activation pathways. Among these peptides, particularly interesting was the discovery of clusters of peptides from fibrinopeptide A, Apolipoprotein E and A4, and complement C3 and C4. Further studies need to be performed to evaluate the specificity of these clusters and validate the results, in order to develop a rapid serum diagnostic test. The analysis by label-free LC ESI-QTOF MS differential analysis of the subcellular fractions of IECs from Crohn’s disease patients and healthy donors permitted to find many proteins that could be involved in the inflammation process. Among them heat shock protein 70, tryptase alpha-1 precursor and proteins whose upregulation can be explained by the increased activity of IECs in Crohn’s disease were identified. Follow-up studies for the validation of the results and the in-depth investigation of the inflammation pathways involved in the disease will be performed. Both the developed mass spectrometry-based protein profiling strategies have been proved to be useful tools for the discovery of disease biomarkers that need to be validated in further studies.

Ricerca, mediante tecniche di proteomica, di biomarcatori proteici utili nella valutazione della qualità degli alimenti di origine animale

In the last decades, the increase of industrial activities and of the request for the world food requirement, the intensification of natural resources exploitation, directly connected to pollution, have aroused an increasing interest of the public opinion towards initiatives linked to the regulation of food production, as well to the institution of a modern legislation for the consumer guardianship. This work was planned taking into account some important thematics related to marine environment, collecting and showing the data obtained from the studies made on different marine species of commercial interest (Chamelea gallina, Mytilus edulis, Ostrea edulis, Crassostrea gigas, Salmo salar, Gadus morhua). These studies have evaluated the effects of important physic and chemical parameters variations (temperature, xenobiotics like drugs, hydrocarbons and pesticides) on cells involved in the immune defence (haemocytes) and on some important enzymatic systems involved in xenobiotic biotransformation processes (cytochrome P450 complex) and in the related antioxidant defence processes (Superoxide dismutase, Catalase, Heat Shock Protein), from a biochemical and bimolecular point of view. Oxygen is essential in the biological answer of a living organism. Its consume in the normal cellular breathing physiological processes and foreign substances biotransformation, leads to reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation, potentially toxic and responsible of biological macromolecules damages with consequent pathologies worsening. Such processes can bring to a qualitative alteration of the derived products, but also to a general state of suffering that in the most serious cases can provoke the death of the organism, with important repercussions in economic field, in the output of the breedings, of fishing and of aquaculture. In this study it seemed interesting to apply also alternative methodologies currently in use in the medical field (cytofluorimetry) and in proteomic studies (bidimensional electrophoresis, mass spectrometry) with the aim of identify new biomarkers to place beside the traditional methods for the control of the animal origin food quality. From the results it’s possible to point out some relevant aspects from each experiment: 1. The cytofluorimetric techniques applied to O. edulis and C. gigas could bring to important developments in the search of alternative methods that quickly allows to identify with precision the origin of a specific sample, contributing to oppose possible alimentary frauds, in this case for example related to presence of a different species, also under a qualitative profile, but morpholgically similar. A concrete perspective for the application in the inspective field of this method has to be confirmed by further laboratory tests that take also in account in vivo experiments to evaluate the effect in the whole organism of the factors evaluated only on haemocytes in vitro. These elements suggest therefore the possibility to suit the cytofluorimetric methods for the study of animal organisms of food interest, still before these enter the phase of industrial working processes, giving useful information about the possible presence of contaminants sources that can induce an increase of the immune defence and an alteration of normal cellular parameter values. 2. C. gallina immune system has shown an interesting answer to benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P) exposure, dose and time dependent, with a significant decrease of the expression and of the activity of one of the most important enzymes involved in the antioxidant defence in haemocytes and haemolymph. The data obtained are confirmed by several measurements of physiological parameters, that together with the decrease of the activity of 7-etossi-resourifine-O-deetilase (EROD linked to xenobiotic biotransformation processes) during exposure, underline the major effects of B[a]P action. The identification of basal levels of EROD supports the possible presence of CYP1A subfamily in the invertebrates, still today controversial, never identified previously in C. gallina and never isolated in the immune cells, as confirmed instead in this study with the identification of CYP1A-immunopositive protein (CYP1A-IPP). This protein could reveal a good biomarker at the base of a simple and quick method that could give clear information about specific pollutants presence, even at low concentrations in the environment where usually these organisms are fished before being commercialized. 3. In this experiment it has been evaluated the effect of the antibiotic chloramphenicol (CA) in an important species of commercial interest, Chamelea gallina. Chloramphenicol is a drug still used in some developing countries, also in veterinary field. Controls to evaluate its presence in the alimentary products of animal origin, can reveal ineffective whereas the concentration results to be below the limit of sensitivity of the instruments usually used in this type of analysis. Negative effects of CA towards the CYP1A- IPP proteins, underlined in this work, seem to be due to the attack of free radicals resultant from the action of the antibiotic. This brings to a meaningful alteration of the biotransformation mechanisms through the free radicals. It seems particularly interesting to pay attention to the narrow relationships in C. gallina, between SOD/CAT and CYP450 system, actively involved in detoxification mechanism, especially if compared with the few similar works today present about mollusc, a group that is composed by numerous species that enter in the food field and on which constant controls are necessary to evaluate in a rapid and effective way the presence of possible contaminations. 4. The investigations on fishes (Gadus morhua, and Salmo salar) and on a bivalve mollusc (Mytilus edulis) have allowed to evaluate different aspects related to the possibility to identify a biomarker for the evaluation of the health of organisms of food interest and consequently for the quality of the final product through 2DE methodologies. In the seafood field these techniques are currently used with a discreet success only for vertebrates (fishes), while in the study of the invertebrates (molluscs) there are a lot of difficulties. The results obtained in this work have underline several problems in the correct identification of the isolated proteins in animal organisms of which doesn’t currently exist a complete genomic sequence. This brings to attribute some identities on the base of the comparison with similar proteins in other animal groups, incurring in the possibility to obtain inaccurate data and above all discordant with those obtained on the same animals by other authors. Nevertheless the data obtained in this work after MALDI-ToF analysis, result however objective and the spectra collected could be again analyzed in the future after the update of genomic database related to the species studied. 4-A. The investigation about the presence of HSP70 isoforms directly induced by different phenomena of stress like B[a]P presence, has used bidimensional electrophoresis methods in C. gallina, that have allowed to isolate numerous protein on 2DE gels, allowing the collection of several spots currently in phase of analysis with MALDI-ToF-MS. The present preliminary work has allowed therefore to acquire and to improve important methodologies in the study of cellular parameters and in the proteomic field, that is not only revealed of great potentiality in the application in medical and veterinary field, but also in the field of the inspection of the foods with connections to the toxicology and the environmental pollution. Such study contributes therefore to the search of rapid and new methodologies, that can increase the inspective strategies, integrating themselves with those existing, but improving at the same time the general background of information related to the state of health of the considered animal organism, with the possibility, still hypothetical, to replace in particular cases the employment of the traditional techniques in the alimentary field.

Induktion und Signaltransduktion bei der Expression des Chemokins MCP-1 in Monozyten

Das Chemokin 'Monocyte Chemoattractant Protein-1' (MCP-1) spielt bei inflammatorischen Erkrankungen eine wesentliche Rolle. Verschiedene Zelltypen produzieren MCP-1. Es interessierte, welche Stimuli in Monozyten MCP-1 induzieren können und welche Signaltransduktionskaskaden daran beteiligt sind. Darüber hinaus sollte die Rolle einzelner Transkriptionsfaktoren und Promotorregionen des MCP-1-Gens untersucht werden.Komponenten Gram-positiver und -negativer Bakterien, Phorbolester und Substanzen, die die intrazelluläre Calciumkonzentration erhöhen, induzierten die MCP-1-Expression in einer humanen myelomonozytären Zellinie (THP-1) und in frisch isolierten Monozyten. Die mit Lipopolysaccharid (LPS)-induzierte MCP-1-Expression war stark von der MAPK/ERK-Kinase (MEK)-1/-2 und von I-kappaB Kinasen beziehungsweise NF-kappaB abhängig, dagegen scheinen Calcineurin, Calmodulinkinasen und die 'Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase' p38 keine entscheidende Rolle zu spielen. Die Thapsigargin (TG)-induzierte MCP-1-Bildung durch Erhöhung der intrazellulären Calciumkonzentration war zusätzlich von Calcineurin und Calmodulinkinasen abhängig. Als nukleäre Transkriptionsfaktoren wurden bei der LPS-Stimulation NF-kappaB sowie AP-1 und zusätzlich NF-ATc3 bei Stimulation durch TG nachgewiesen. Die Untersuchung des MCP-1-Promotors konnte eine Bindung von NF-kappaB- und AP-1-Mitglieder an eine bislang nicht untersuchte distale Region und eine AP-1-Bindung an eine proximale Region nachweisen. Die Ergebnisse lassen den Schluß zu, daß die Aktivierung der MCP-1-Expression durch verschiedene Stimuli unter Beteiligung teilweise unterschiedlicher Signaltransduktionswege abläuft und sowohl eine proximale als auch eine distale Promotorregion des MCP-1-Gens daran beteiligt ist.

Espressione del vascular endothelium growth factor (VEGF) nella micosi fungoide

La micosi fungoide (MF) è un linfoma a cellule T primitivo della cute usualmente indolente negli stadi iniziali, ma con prognosi decisamente peggiore nelle fasi avanzate, ove attualmente non sono presenti strategie terapeutiche tali da indurre remissioni durature. Recenti osservazioni indicano che alti livelli di espressione del vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) nelle cellule della MF sembrano correlare con una prognosi peggiore. Nel presente studio, sono state vagliate le eventuali differenze di espressione di VEGF nella MF e nei linfociti T normali. In primo luogo sono stati raffrontati 63 casi di MF con 20 campioni corrispondenti alle diverse sottopopolazioni di linfociti T normali, per stabilire quale fra questi esprimesse maggiori livelli di VEGF. Tale esperimento ha dimostrato che il gene è notevolmente più espresso nella MF. Si è provveduto a stabilire se tale dato sia da correlarsi ad un fenomeno patologico o fisiologico. Quindi sono state eseguite indagini di gene expression profiling (GEP) allo scopo di vagliare i livelli di VEGF nella popolazione linfocitaria T normale (CD4+, CD8+, HLA-DR+ e HLA-DR-): da ciò è risultato che i linfociti T attivati esprimono maggiormente VEGF e che il loro GEP è globalmente paragonabile a quello della MF. Pertanto, i linfociti T attivati sono stati considerati la controparte normale delle cellule della MF. Successivamente si è confrontata l’espressione quantitativa di VEGF nei linfociti T attivati e nelle cellule della MF, evidenziando come questa sia maggiore nella popolazione neoplastica indipendentemente dallo stadio della malattia. Le indagini immunoistochimiche condotte su 18 casi di MF, hanno confermato quanto evidenziato attraverso il GEP. Concludendo, la ricerca ha dimostrato per la prima volta l’espressione di VEGF negli elementi della MF. Ciò porta a supporre che la de-regolazione genica della via di VEGF sia correlata nella patogenesi della MF e che tale molecola possa considerarsi un potenziale bersaglio terapeutico.

Der Einfluss der regulierten Expression der onkogenen Kinase PKB,Akt auf die T-Zell-vermittelte Tumorabstoßung

Eine wesentliche Voraussetzung für die maligne Transformation von Zellen ist die Inaktivierung des programmierten Zelltodes (Apoptose). Die dabei erworbenen Defekte der Apoptose-Signalwege führen häufig zu Resistenzen gegenüber Radio- und Chemotherapien. Immuntherapeutische Ansätze haben zum Ziel, solche resistenten Tumorzellen spezifisch zu entfernen. Resistenzen gegenüber Immuntherapien können wiederum in einer gestörten Immunerkennung der Tumorzellen oder deren Resistenz gegenüber Immuneffektormechanismen begründet sein. Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit war, zu überprüfen, ob durch Proteinkinase B (PKB)/Akt Immunresistenz vermittelt werden kann. Hierbei zeigte sich, dass die Aktivierung des PKB/Akt-Signalweges in Tumorzellen einen deutlichen Schutz gegenüber verschiedenen Apoptosestimuli in vitro vermittelt. Die konditionale Aktivierung von PKB/Akt hemmte sowohl die pharmakologisch, als auch die durch ZTL induzierte Apoptose-Signalkaskade über eine posttranskriptionelle Stabilisierung des anti-apoptotischen Proteins MCL-1. Diese Beobachtung konnte auch in einem murinen Tumorimmuntherapiemodell in vivo bestätigt werden. Unstimulierte Splenozyten von C57Bl/6-Mäusen wurden adoptiv in NOD/SCID-Mäuse mit etablierten, PKB/Akt-exprimierenden, murinen Fibrosarkomen transferiert. Die konditionale Aktivierung von PKB/Akt inhibierte den tumorsuppressiven Effekt dieser transplantierten Splenozyten signifikant. Des Weiteren konnte gezeigt werden, dass die PKB/Akt-abhängige Immunresistenz auch in vivo durch anti-apoptotisches MCL-1 vermittelt wird. PKB/Akt-exprimierende Fibrosarkome mit supprimierter endogener MCL-1-Expression verloren ihre Resistenz gegenüber der durch adoptiven Splenozytentransfer vermittelten Tumorsuppression. Dies bestätigte endogenes MCL-1 als entscheidenden Faktor der PKB/Akt-vermittelten Immunresistenz. Ferner konnte gezeigt werden, dass eine Hemmung der PKB/Akt-induzierten Signaltransduktion auf der Ebene der nachgeschalteten Kinase mTOR etablierte Fibrosarkome gegenüber adoptiver Lymphozytentherapie sensitiviert. Der mTOR-Inhibitor Rapamycin verhinderte die PKB/Akt-induzierte Aufregulation von MCL-1 und die damit einhergehende Resistenzentwicklung in vivo. Zusammengefasst wurde erstmalig gezeigt, dass eine Deregulation des PKB/Akt-Signalweges Resistenz gegenüber immunologischer Tumorsuppression vermitteln kann. PKB/Akt stellt somit ein entscheidendes Zielmolekül für die Verbesserung von Krebsimmuntherapien dar.

Die Rolle des anti-apoptotischen Proteins Mcl-1 für die Leber und das hepatozelluläre Karzinom

Myeloid cell leukemia-1 (Mcl-1) ist ein anti-apoptotisches Mitglied der Bcl-2-Proteinfamilie. Als solches ist es in der Lage, die mitochondriale Aktivierung während der Apoptose zu hemmen. Dadurch schützt es Zellen bei zellulärem Stress (wie z.B. Differenzierung, Proliferation oder Virusinfektion) vor Apoptoseinduktion. Aufgrund dieser Eigenschaft ist es unabkömmlich während der Embryogenese und in verschiedenen hämatopoetischen Zellpopulationen. Des Weiteren ist Mcl-1 als Protoonkogen in verschiedenen humanen Tumorentitäten verstärkt exprimiert und kann so zu einer verminderten Apoptosesensitivität von Tumorzellen beitragen. Auch primäre humane Hepatozyten können nach Mcl-1-Induktion durch Wachstumsfaktorbehandlung gegenüber CD95-vermittelter Apoptose geschützt werden. Daher sollte untersucht werden, welche Bedeutung Mcl-1 im hepatozellulären Karzinom (HCC) und in der gesunden Leber einnimmt. Hierzu wurde zunächst humanes HCC-Gewebe hinsichtlich der Expression von Mcl-1 untersucht. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass Mcl-1 sowohl auf mRNA- als auch auf Protein-Ebene in HCC-Gewebe verstärkt exprimiert ist im Vergleich zu benachbartem Normalgewebe. Auch in verschiedenen HCC-Zelllinien konnte eine starke Mcl-1-Expression nachgewiesen werden. Diese war vor allem über den PI3K/Akt-Signalweg reguliert. Eine Hemmung dieses Signalwegs führte zu einer Reduktion der Mcl-1-Expression und so zu einer Sensitivierung der Zellen gegenüber verschiedenen Chemotherapeutika und zielgerichteten Therapien. Des Weiteren wurde die Mcl-1-Expression spezifisch durch RNA-Interferenz gehemmt. Auch hier konnte gezeigt werden, dass Zellen mit unterdrückter Mcl-1-Expression deutlich sensitiver gegenüber verschiedenen Apoptose-induzierenden Substanzen reagierten. Eine kombinierte Hemmung der Mcl-1-Expression und der PI3-Kinase führte schließlich zu einer nochmals verstärkten Sensitivierung. Im Gegensatz dazu führte eine Überexpression von Mcl-1 zu einer Hemmung der Apoptoseinduktion. Im zweiten Teil der Arbeit wurde eine Mauslinie etabliert, welche spezifisch in Hepatozyten kein Mcl-1 exprimiert, um so die Bedeutung von Mcl-1 für die Leber in vivo zu untersuchen. Es zeigte sich, dass Mcl-1flox/flox-AlbCre-Mäuse bereits im Alter von acht Wochen eine verminderte Lebergröße aufweisen. Dies wurde verursacht durch spontane Apoptoseinduktion in den Mcl-1 negativen Hepatozyten. Hierdurch kam es zu einer Leberschädigung, ersichtlich durch erhöhte Transaminasenwerte, erhöhte Caspase-3-Aktivierung, und Schädigung der Gewebsstruktur. Zudem war als kompensatorischer Effekt die Zellproliferation erhöht, ohne dass sich jedoch das Lebergewicht an das von Kontrolltieren anglich. Interessanterweise kam es in Mcl-1flox/flox-AlbCre-Mäusen als Folge der chronischen Leberschädigung zur Entwicklung einer Leberfibrose, ersichtlich durch eine verstärkte Collageneinlagerung. Weiterhin reagierten Mcl-1flox/flox-AlbCre-Mäuse wesentlich empfindlicher gegenüber Todesrezeptor-vermittelter Apoptose. Diese Daten zeigen zum einen, dass Mcl-1 zur Apoptoseresistenz von HCC-Zellen beitragen kann. Zielgerichtete Therapien, welche die Expression von Mcl-1 hemmen, könnten folglich für die Therapie des HCCs von Interesse sein. Des Weiteren konnte in dieser Arbeit zum ersten Mal gezeigt werden, dass Mcl-1 ein zentraler anti-apoptotischer Faktor für Hepatozyten in vivo ist.

Gene expression analysis in ‘Candidatus Phytoplasma mali’-resistant and -susceptible Malus genotypes

Apple proliferation (AP) disease is the most important graft-transmissible and vector-borne disease of apple in Europe. ‘Candidatus Phytoplasma mali’ (Ca. P. mali) is the causal agent of AP. Apple (Malus x domestica) and other Malus species are the only known woody hosts. In European apple orchards, the cultivars are mainly grafted on one rootstock, M. x domestica cv. M9. M9 like all other M. x domestica cultivars is susceptible to ‘Ca. P. mali’. Resistance to AP was found in the wild genotype Malus sieboldii (MS) and in MS-derived hybrids but they were characterised by poor agronomic value. The breeding of a new rootstock carrying the resistant and the agronomic traits was the major aim of a project of which this work is a part. The objective was to shed light into the unknown resistance mechanism. The plant-phytoplasma interaction was studied by analysing differences between the ‘Ca. P. mali’-resistant and -susceptible genotypes related to constitutively expressed genes or to induced genes during infection. The cDNA-Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism (cDNA-AFLP) technique was employed in both approaches. Differences related to constitutively expressed genes were identified between two ‘Ca. P. mali’-resistant hybrid genotypes (4551 and H0909) and the ‘Ca. P. mali’-susceptible M9. 232 cDNA-AFLP bands present in the two resistant genotypes but absent in the susceptible one were isolated but several different products associated to each band were found. Therefore, two different macroarray hybridisation experiments were performed with the cDNA-AFLP fragments yielding 40 sequences encoding for genes of unknown function or a wide array of functions including plant defence. In the second approach, individuation and analysis of the induced genes was carried out exploiting an in vitro system in which healthy and ‘Ca. P. mali’-infected micropropagated plants were maintained under controlled conditions. Infection trials using in vitro grafting of ‘Ca. P. mali’ showed that the resistance phenotype could be reproduced in this system. In addition, ex vitro plants were generated as an independent control of the genes differentially expressed in the in vitro plants. The cDNA-AFLP analysis in in vitro plants yielded 63 bands characterised by over-expression in the infected state of both the H0909 and MS genotypes. The major part (37 %) of the associated sequences showed homology with products of unknown function. The other genes were involved in plant defence, energy transport/oxidative stress response, protein metabolism and cellular growth. Real-time qPCR analysis was employed to validate the differential expression of the genes individuated in the cDNA-AFLP analysis. Since no internal controls were available for the study of the gene expression in Malus, an analysis on housekeeping genes was performed. The most stably expressed genes were the elongation factor-1 α (EF1) and the eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4-A (eIF4A). Twelve out of 20 genes investigated through qPCR were significantly differentially expressed in at least one genotype either in in vitro plants or in ex vitro plants. Overall, about 20% of the genes confirmed their cDNA-AFLP expression pattern in M. sieboldii or H0909. On the contrary, 30 % of the genes showed down-regulation or were not differentially expressed. For the remaining 50 % of the genes a contrasting behaviour was observed. The qPCR data could be interpreted as follows: the phytoplasma infection unbalance photosynthetic activity and photorespiration down-regulating genes involved in photosynthesis and in the electron transfer chain. As result, and in contrast to M. x domestica genotypes, an up-regulation of genes of the general response against pathogens was found in MS. These genes involved the pathway of H2O2 and the production of secondary metabolites leading to the hypothesis that a response based on the accumulation of H2O2 in MS would be at the base of its resistance. This resembles a phenomenon known as “recovery” where the spontaneous remission of the symptoms is observed in old susceptible plants but occurring in a stochastic way while the resistance in MS is an inducible but stable feature. As additional product of this work three cDNA-AFLP-derived markers were developed which showed independent distribution among the seedlings of two breeding progenies and were associated to a genomic region characteristic of MS. These markers will contribute to the development of molecular markers for the resistance as well as to map the resistance on the Malus genome.

Control of fruit postharvest diseases by thermotherapy: understanding the mechanisms of action by –omics approaches

In recent years the hot water treatment (HW) represents an effective and safe approach for managing postharvest decay. This study reported the effect of an HW (60°C for 60 s and 45°C for 10 min) on brown rot and blue mould respectively. Peaches was found more thermotolerant compared to apple fruit, otherwise Penicillium expansum was more resistant to heat with respect to Monilinia spp. In semi-commercial and commercial trials, the inhibition of brown rot in naturally infected peaches was higher than 78% after 6 days at 0°C and 3 days at 20°C. Moreover, in laboratory trials a 100% disease incidence reduction was obtained by treating artificially infected peaches at 6-12 h after inoculation revealing a curative effect of HW. The expression levels of some genes were evaluated by qRT-PCR. Specifically, the cell wall genes (β-GAL, PL, PG, PME) showed a general decrease of expression level whereas PAL, CHI, HSP70 and ROS-scavenging genes were induced in treated peaches compared to the control ones. Contrarily, HW applied on artificially infected fruit before the inoculum was found to increase brown rot susceptibility. This aspect might be due to an increase of fruit VOCs emission as revealed by PTR-ToF-MS analysis. In addition a microarray experiment was conducted to analyze molecular mechanisms underneath the apple response to heat. Our results showed a largest amount of induced Heat shock proteins (HSPs), Heat shock cognate proteins (HSCs), Heat shock transcription factors (HSTFs) genes found at 1 and 4 hours from the treatment. Those genes required for the thermotolerance process could be involved in induced resistance response. The hypothesis was confirmed by 30% of blue mold disease reduction in artificially inoculated apple after 1 and 4 hours from the treatment. In order to improve peaches quality and disease management during storage, an innovative tool was also used: Da-meter.

Heterozygous deletion of the PU.1 locus in human AML

The transcription factor PU.1 is essential for myeloid development. Targeted disruption of an upstream regulatory element (URE) decreases PU.1 expression by 80% and leads to acute myeloid leukemia (AML) in mice. Here, we sequenced the URE sequences of PU.1 in 120 AML patients. Four polymorphisms (single nucleotide polymorphisms [SNPs]) in the URE were observed, with homozygosity in all SNPs in 37 patients. Among them, we compared samples at diagnosis and remission, and one patient with cytogenetically normal acute myeloid leukemia M2 was identified with heterozygosity in 3 of the SNPs in the URE at remission. Loss of heterozygosity was further found in this patient at 2 polymorphic sites in the 5' promoter region and in 2 intronic sites flanking exon 4, thus suggesting loss of heterozygosity covering at least 40 kb of the PU.1 locus. Consistently, PU.1 expression in this patient was markedly reduced. Our study suggests that heterozygous deletion of the PU.1 locus can be associated with human AML.

PU.1 is regulated by NF-kappaB through a novel binding site in a 17 kb upstream enhancer element

The majority of patients with acute myeloid leukemia (AML) still die of their disease, and novel therapeutic concepts are needed. Timely expression of the hematopoietic master regulator PU.1 is crucial for normal development of myeloid and lymphoid cells. Targeted disruption of an upstream regulatory element (URE) located several kb upstream in the PU.1 promoter decreases PU.1 expression thereby inducing AML in mice. In addition, suppression of PU.1 has been observed in specific subtypes of human AML. Here, we identified nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB) to activate PU.1 expression through a novel site within the URE. We found sequence variations of this particular NF-kappaB site in 4 of 120 AML patients. These variant NF-kappaB sequences failed to mediate activation of PU.1. Moreover, the synergistic activation of PU.1 together with CEBPB through these variant sequences was also lost. Finally, AML patients with such variant sequences had suppressed PU.1 mRNA expression. This study suggests that changes of a single base pair in a distal element critically affect the regulation of the tumor suppressor gene PU.1 thereby contributing to the development of AML.

Expression of ADAMTS1 in endothelial cells is induced by shear stress and suppressed in sprouting capillaries

ADAMTS1 inhibits capillary sprouting, and since capillary sprouts do not experience the shear stress caused by blood flow, this study undertook to clarify the relationship between shear stress and ADAMTS1. It was found that endothelial cells exposed to shear stress displayed a strong upregulation of ADAMTS1, dependent upon both the magnitude and duration of their exposure. Investigation of the underlying pathways demonstrated involvement of phospholipase C, phosphoinositide 3-kinase, and nitric oxide. Forkhead box protein O1 was identified as a likely inhibitor of the system, as its knockdown was followed by a slight increase in ADAMTS1 expression. In silico prediction displayed a transcriptional binding site for Forkhead box protein O1 in the promotor region of the ADAMTS1 gene, as well as sites for nuclear factor 1, SP1, and AP-1. The anti-angiogenic effects of ADAMTS1 were attributed to its cleavage of thrombospondin 1 into a 70-kDa fragment, and a significant enhancement of this fragment was indeed demonstrated by immunoblotting shear stress-treated cells. Accordingly, scratch wound closure displayed a slowdown in conditioned medium from shear stress-treated endothelial cells, an effect that could be completely blocked by a knockdown of thrombospondin 1 and partially blocked by a knockdown of ADAMTS1. Non-perfused capillary sprouts in rat mesenteries stained negative for ADAMTS1, while vessels in the microcirculation that had already experienced blood flow yielded the opposite results. The shear stress-dependent expression of ADAMTS1 in vitro was therefore also demonstrated in vivo and thereby confirmed as a mechanism connecting blood flow with the regulation of angiogenesis.