Transformation of the Financial Sector in Indonesia

Introduction : The source and deployment of finance are central issues in economic development. Since 1966, when the Soeharto Administration was inaugurated, Indonesian economic development has relied on funds in the form of aid from international organizations and foreign countries. After the 1990s, a further abundant inflow of capital sustained a rapid economic development. Foreign funding was the basis of Indonesian economic growth. This paper will describe the mechanism for allocating funds in the Indonesian economy. It will identify the problems this mechanism generated in the Indonesian experience, and it will attempt to explain why there was a collapse of the financial system in the wake of the Asian Currency Crisis of 1997. History of the Indonesian Financial system The year 1966 saw the emergence of commercial banks in Indonesia. It can be said that before 1966 a financial system hardly existed, a fact commonly attributed to economic disruptions like the consecutive runs of fiscal deficit and hyperinflation under the Soekarno Administration. After 1996, with the inauguration of Soeharto, a regulatory system of financial legislation, e.g. central banking law and banking regulation, was introduced and implemented, and the banking sector that is the basis of the current financial system in Indonesia was built up. 　　　The Indonesian financial structure was significantly altered at the first financial reform of 1983. Between 1966 and 1982, the banking sector consisted of Bank Indonesia (the Central Bank) and the state-owned banks. There was also a system for distributing the abundant public revenue derived from the soaring oil price of the 1970s. The public finance distribution function, incorporated in Indonesian financial system, changed after the successive financial reforms of 1983 and 1988, when there was a move away from the monopoly-market style dominated by state-owned banks (which was a system of public finance distribution that operated at the discretion of the government) towards a modern market mechanism. The five phases of development The Indonesian financial system developed in five phases between 1966 and the present time. The first period (1966-72) was its formative period, the second (1973-82) its policy based finance period under soaring oil prices, the third (1983-91) its financial-reform period, the fourth (1992-97) its period of expansion, and the fifth (1998-) its period of financial restructuring. The first section of this paper summarizes the financial policies operative during each of the periods identified above. In the second section changes to the financial sector in response to policies are examined, and an analysis of these changes shows that an important development of the financial sector occurred during the financial reform period. In the third section the focus of analysis shifts from the general financial sector to particular commercial banks’ performances. In the third section changes in commercial banks’ lending and fund-raising behaviour after the 1990s are analysed by comparing several banking groups in terms of their ownership and foundation time. The last section summarizes the foregoing analyses and examines the problems that remain in the Indonesian financial sector, which is still undergoing restructuring.

Innovation networks in China, Japan, and Korea : evidence from Japanese patent data

The growing importance of innovation in economic growth has encouraged the development of innovation capabilities in East Asia, within which China, Japan, and Korea are most important in terms of technological capabilities. Using Japanese patent data, we examine how knowledge networks have developed among these countries. We find that Japan's technological specialization saw little change, but those of Korea and China changed rapidly since 1970s. By the year 2009, technology specialization has become similar across three countries in the sense that the common field of prominent technology is "electronic circuits and communication technologies". Patent citations suggest that technology flows were largest in the electronic technology, pointing to the deepening of innovation networks in these countries.

Innovation networks in China, Japan, and Korea : further evidence from U.S. patent data

The growing importance of innovation in economic growth has encouraged the development of innovation capabilities in East Asia, within which China, Japan, and Korea are most important in terms of technological capabilities. Using U.S. patent data, we examine how knowledge networks have developed among these countries. We find that Japan's technological specialization saw gradual changes, but those of Korea and China changed rapidly since 1970s. By the year 2009, technology specialization has become similar across three countries in the sense that the common fields of prominent technology are electronics and semiconductors. Patent citations suggest that technology flows were largest in the electronics technology, pointing to the deepening of innovation networks in these countries. Together with our prior work, the Japanese and U.S. data produce similar conclusions about innovation networks.

Growth of AlN oriented films on insulating substrates.

This work describes the structural and piezoelectric assessment of aluminum nitride (AlN) thin films deposited by pulsed-DC reactive sputtering on insulating substrates. We investigate the effect of different insulating seed layers on AlN properties (crystallinity, residual stress and piezoelectric activity). The seed layers investigated, silicon nitride (Si3N4), silicon dioxide (SiO2), amorphous tantalum oxide (Ta2O5), and amorphous or nano-crystalline titanium oxide (TiO2) are deposited on glass plates to a thickness lower than 100 nm. Before AlN films deposition, their surface is pre-treated with a soft ionic cleaning, either with argon or nitrogen ions. Only AlN films grown of TiO2 seed layers exhibit a significant piezoelectric activity to be used in acoustic device applications. Pure c-axis oriented films, with FWHM of rocking curve of 6º, stress below 500 MPa, and electromechanical coupling factors measured in SAW devices of 1.25% are obtained. The best AlN films are achieved on amorphous TiO2 seed layers deposited at high target power and low sputtering pressure. On the other hand, AlN films deposited on Si3N4, SiO2 and TaOx exhibit a mixed orientation, high stress and very low piezoelectric activity, which invalidate their use in acoustic devices.

High frequency high-order Rayleigh modes in ZnO/GaAs

Strong high-order Rayleigh or Sezawa modes, in addition to the fundamental Rayleigh mode, have been observed in ZnO/GaAs(001) systems along the [110] propagation direction of GaAs. The dispersion of the different acoustic waves has been calculated and compared to the experimental data. The bandwidth and impedance matching characteristics of the multimode SAW delay lines operating at high frequencies (2.5-3.5 GHz regime) have been investigated.

Análisis técnico-económico de acceso al mercado alemán EPEX SPOT

Acciona Energía dispone en Alemania de 150 MW de potencia instalada. Todos ellos de energía eólica, en un total de doce parques eólicos situados en la sur del país. El proyecto tiene por objeto comparar las distintas modalidades de venta de energía procedente de fuentes renovables que ofrece el estado alemán para la cartera de activos de Acciona Energía, llegando a una conclusión final de cuál de ellas es la más aconsejable. Para ello se ha realizado un estudio del funcionamiento y normas del mercado Epex Spot de la electricidad y de la legislación alemana correspondiente a la materia, así como un seguimiento exhaustivo de producción y otras variables de los parques eólicos para su análisis. Los cálculos y las estimaciones realizados llevaron a la conclusión, que la mejor opción era la venta directa en el mercado Epex Spot, para lo que primero habría que darse de alta como agente en dicho mercado. Aunque esta opción asuma mayores riesgos también ofrecería un aumento considerable de ingresos. ABSTRACT Acciona Energía has 150 MW of power capacity in Germany, all of them wind energy in a total of twelve installations, located in the south of the country. The main goal of the project is to compare the different ways to sell the energy which became from renewable source that German state offers for Acciona’s asset portfolio, finding the most advisable conclusion. To do so a study of standards and rules of Epex Spot electricity market and German law related to this topic has been made. In addition of an exhaustive monitoring of energy production and others wind farms variables has been analyzed. The reckoning and estimations saw the conclusion that the best option was the direct sell in Epex Spot market, in order to do that the first of all is to register as market agent. Despite this options assume bigger risks, it provide a substantial increase in income

On the lateral excitation of shear modes in AlN layered resonators

In this paper we describe the fabrication and frequency characterization of different structures intended for the lateral excitation of shear modes in AlN c-axis-oriented films, which are at the same time designed to minimize the excitation of longitudinal modes. Laterally excited resonators were built on partially metallic (SiO2, W) and insulating (SiOC, Si3N4) acoustic mirrors built on silicon substrates, and on insulating mirrors (SiO2, TaOx) built on insulating glass plates. TiOx seed layers were used to stimulate the growth of highly c-axis oriented AlN films, which was confirmed by XRD and SAW measurements. Coplanar Mo electrodes of different geometries were defined on top of the AlN films to excite the shear modes. All the structures analyzed displayed a clear longitudinal mode, corresponding to an acoustic velocity of 11000 m/s, but a null or extremely weak shear response corresponding to a sound velocity of around 6350 m/s. The simulation of the frequency response based on Mason's model confirms that the shear resonance is extremely weak. The observed longitudinal modes are attributed either to the field applied between the electrodes and a conductive plane (metallic layer or Si substrate) or to the electric field parallel to the c-axis in the edges of the electrodes or in tilted grains. The low excitation of shear modes is attributed to the very low values of electric field strength parallel to the surface.

La barrera del análisis estructural y la representación gráfica en el desarrollo de los proyectos arquitectónicos: el caso de la Ópera de Sidney

En numerosas ocasiones a lo largo de la historia la imaginación de los creadores ha ido por delante de las posibilidades técnicas de cada momento. Así, muchas de estas nuevas ideas han requerido largos periodos de tiempo para materializarse como realidad construida, hasta que el desarrollo tecnológico e industrial hubo alcanzado un grado de madurez suficiente. En el campo de la arquitectura, estas limitaciones técnicas se han ido acotando paulatinamente hasta desembocar en la situación actual en la que cualquier planteamiento formal puede ser representado gráficamente y analizado desde un punto de vista estructural, superádose de este modo la barrera existente históricamente en el tratamiento de las formas. A lo largo del presente tesis doctoral se analiza cómo la formulación del Método de los Elementos Finitos en la década de los cincuenta y las curvas de Bézier en la década de los sesenta del siglo pasado y la posterior generalización de los ordenadores personales y de los programas informáticos asociados (C.A.D. y F.E.M. principalmente) en los estudios de arquitectura e ingeniería a partir de la década de los noventa, posibilitó el desarrollo de cualquier propuesta arquitectónica, por compleja que ésta fuese, provocando una verdadera revolución a nivel formal en el mundo de la arquitectura, especialmente en el campo de la edificación singular o icónica. Se estudia este proceso a través de ocho edificios; cuatro anteriores y otros tantos posteriores a la desaparición de la barrera anteriormente referida, establecida de forma simbólica en la década de los años ochenta del siglo XX: Frontón de Recoletos en Madrid, Edificio Seagram en Nueva York, Habitat ’67 en Montreal, Ópera de Sídney, museo Guggenheim de Bilbao, ampliación del Victoria & Albert Museum en Londres, tanatorio “Meiso no Mori” en Gifu y nueva sede de la CCTV en Pekín. De entre ellos, la Ópera de Sídney, obra del arquitecto danés Jørn Utzon, condensa gran parte de los aspectos relevantes investigados en relación a la influencia que los métodos de representación y análisis estructural ejercen en la concepción y construcción de las obras de arquitectura. Por este motivo y por considerarse un hito de la arquitectura a nivel global se toma como caso de estudio. La idea general del edificio, que data de 1956, se enmarca en una época inmediatamente anterior a la del desarrollo científico y tecnológico anteriormente referido. Esta ausencia de herramientas de diseño disponibles acordes a la complejidad formal de la propuesta planteada condicionó enormente la marcha del proyecto, dilatándose dramáticamente en el tiempo y disparándose su coste hasta el punto de que el propio arquitecto danés fue separado de las obras antes de su conclusión. Además, la solución estructural finalmente construida de las cubiertas dista mucho de la prevista por Utzon inicialmente. Donde él había imaginado unas finas láminas de hormigón flotando sobre el paisaje se materializó una estructura más pesada, formada por costillas pretensadas de hormigón con unas secciones notablemente mayores. La forma también debió ser modificada de modo ostensible respecto a la propuesta inicial. Si este edificio se pretendiese construir en la actualidad, con toda seguridad el curso de los acontecimientos se desarrollaría por senderos muy diferentes. Ante este supuesto, se plantean las siguientes cuestiones: ¿sería posible realizar un análisis estructural de la cubierta laminar planteada por Utzon inicialmente en el concurso con las herramientas disponibles en la actualidad?; ¿sería dicha propuesta viable estructuralmente?. A lo largo de las siguientes páginas se pretende dar respuesta a estas cuestiones, poniendo de relieve el impacto que los ordenadores personales y los programas informáticos asociados han tenido en la manera de concebir y construir edificios. También se han analizado variantes a la solución laminar planteada en la fase de concurso, a través de las cuales, tratando en la medida de lo posible de ajustarse a las sugerencias que Ove Arup y su equipo realizaron a Jørn Utzon a lo largo del dilatado proceso de proyecto, mejorar el comportamiento general de la estructura del edificio. Por último, se ha pretendido partir de cero y plantear, desde una perspectiva contemporánea, posibles enfoques metodológicos aplicables a la búsqueda de soluciones estructurales compatibles con la forma propuesta originalmente por Utzon para las cubiertas de la Ópera de Sídney y que nunca llegó a ser construida (ni analizada), considerando para ello los medios tecnológicos, científicos e industriales disponibles en la actualidad. Abstract On numerous occasions throughout history the imagination of creators has gone well beyond of the technical possibilities of their time. Many new ideas have required a long period to materialize, until the technological and industrial development had time to catch up. In the architecture field, these technical limitations have gradually tightened leading to the current situation in which any formal approach can be represented and analyzed from a structural point of view, thus concluding that the structural analysis and the graphical representation’s barrier in the development of architectural projects has dissappeared. Throughout the following pages it is examined how the development of the Finite Element Method in the fifties and the Bezier curves in the sixties of the last century and the subsequent spread of personal computers and specialized software in the architectural and engineering offices from the nineties, enabled the development of any architectural proposal independently of its complexity. This has caused a revolution at a formal level in architecture, especially in the field of iconic building. This process is analyzed through eight buildings, four of them before and another four after the disappearance of the above mentioned barrier, roughly established in the eighties of the last century: Fronton Recoletos in Madrid, Seagram Building in New York Habitat '67 in Montreal, Sydney Opera House, Guggenheim Museum Bilbao, Victoria & Albert Museum extension in London, Crematorium “Meiso no Mori” in Gifu and the new CCTV headquarters in Beijing. Among them, the Sydney Opera House, designed by Danish architect Jørn Utzon, condenses many of the main aspects previously investigated regarding the impact of representation methods and structural analysis on the design and construction of architectural projects. For this reason and also because it is considered a global architecture milestone, it is selected as a case study. The building’s general idea, which dates from 1956, is framed at a time immediately preceding the above mentioned scientific and technological development. This lack of available design tools in accordance with the proposal’s formal complexity conditioned enormously the project’s progress, leading to a dramatic delay and multiplying the final budget disproportionately to the point that the Danish architect himself was separated from the works before completion. Furthermore, the built structure differs dramatically from the architect’s initial vision. Where Utzon saw a thin concrete shell floating over the landscape a heavier structure was built, consisting of prestressed concrete ribs with a significantly greater size. The geometry also had to be modified. If this building were to built today, the course of events surely would walk very different paths. Given this assumption, a number of questions could then be formulated: Would it be possible to perform a structural analysis of Utzon’s initially proposed competition-free-ways roof’s geometry with the tools available nowadays?; Would this proposal be structurally feasable?. Throughout the following pages it is intended to clarify this issues, highlighting personal computers and associated software’s impact in building design and construction procedures, especially in the field of iconic building. Variants have also been analyzed for the laminar solution proposed in the competition phase, through which, trying as far as possible to comply with the suggestions that Ove Arup and his team did to Jørn Utzon along the lengthy process project, improving the overall performance of the building structure. Finally, we have started from scratch and analyzed, from a contemporary perspective, possible structural solutions compatible with Utzon’s Opera House’s original geometry and vision –proposal that was never built (nor even analyzed)-, taking into consideration the technological, scientific and industrial means currently available.

CsRAV1: a candidate gene for improving lignocellulosic biomass yield

Fast-growing tree species of Populus spp.,Salix spp. and Eucalyptus spp. are cultivated to produce wood in a short time. Poplars are cultivated with cycles of 15-18 years to obtain saw timber and peeler logs, but when grown as short -rotation coppice(SRC) to produce biomass, planting density increases and rotation is considerably reduced (3-5 years). In this regard, research efforts are focused in the identification of traits and loci that allow the generation of improved SRC biomass-yielding genotypes. Biomass yield is a highly complex trait as it is the combined outcome of many other complex traits, each under separate polygenic control. Among profitable biomass yield-related traits are the amount of sylleptic branching and the length of winter dormancy. In poplar and in a few other Salicaceae species some lateral buds grow out sylleptically, the same season in which they form without the need of an intervening rest period. Sylleptic branching in poplar increases branch number, leaf area and general growth of the tree in its early years, and is a reasonable predictor of coppice yield. On the other hand, the length of winter dormancy determines the extent of the growth period. Our group has characterized the RAV1 gene of Castanea sativa (CsRAV1), encoding a transcription factor of the subfamily RAV (Related to ABI3/VP1). CsRAV1 expression shows a marked seasonal pattern, being higher in autumn and winter both in stems and buds. We generated transgenic lines of the hybrid clone Populus tremulax P. alba INRA 717 1B4 constitutively expressing CsRAV 1. These CsRAV1-expressing poplars develop sylleptic branches only a few weeks after potting. In addition to the sylleptic branching phenotype, these trees show phenological features that could give rise to an extended growth period. We are currently assessing the phenotype and behavior of these transgenic trees in a field trial, and ultimately, we will evaluate the impact on lignocellulosic biomass quality and production.

Atelier Barani. Nice

I still remember the first time I saw photos of Marc Barani's Saint Pancrace Cemetery. ATELIER BARANI's project made such a lasting impression on me that I have followed hls work closely ever slnce. For the past six years, Barani has taught ln dlfferent places, most recently at the Speclal School of Architecture in Parls.

Visibility. Sobre la arquitectura de Emilio Tuñón y Luis Moreno Mansilla. Mansilla + Tuñón. Madrid

When I lncluded the then very young Emilio Tunon ln the book Young Spanish Architecture twenty years ago, he had just built a beautlful chapel in Alcala. Some people criticized this vote of confidence, as they saw it as a bit premature.

Characterization of rock joints by fractal analysis

From a physical perspective, a joint experiences fracturing processes that affect the rock at both microscopic and macroscopic levels. The result is a behaviour that follows a fractal structure. In the first place, for saw-tooth roughness profiles, the use of the triadic Koch curve appears to be adequate and by means of known correlations the JRC parameter is obtained from the angle measured on the basis of the height and length of the roughnesses. Therefore, JRC remains related to the geometric pattern that defines roughness by fractal analysis. In the second place, to characterise the geometry of irregularities with softened profiles, consequently, is proposed a characterisation of the fractal dimension of the joints with a circumference arc generator that is dependent on an average contact angle with regard to the mid-plane. The correlation between the JRC and the fractal dimension of the model is established with a defined statistical ratio.

Contribución al conocimiento de los primeros geotécnicos del siglo XX

Leyendo distintos artículos en la Revista de Obras Públicas (Jiménez Salas, 1945) uno recuerda a las grandes figuras como Coulomb (1773), Poncelet (1840), Rankine (1856), Culmann (1866), Mohr (1871), Boussinesq (1876) y otros muchos, que construyeron la base de un conocimiento que poco a poco irían facilitando la complicada tarea que suponía la construcción. Pero sus avances eran aproximaciones que presentaban notables diferencias frente al comportamiento de la naturaleza. Esas discrepancias con la naturaleza llegó un momento que se hicieron demasiado patentes. Importantes asientos en la construcción de los modernos edificios, rotura de presas de materiales sueltos y grandes corrimientos de tierras, por ejemplo durante la construcción del canal de Panamá, llevaron a la Sociedad Americana de Ingenieros Civiles (ASCE) a crear un comité que analizase las prácticas de la construcción de la época. Hechos similares se producían en Europa, por ejemplo en desmontes para ferrocarriles, que en el caso de Suecia supusieron unas cuantiosas perdidas materiales y humanas. El ingeniero austriaco-americano Karl Terzaghi (1883) había podido comprobar, en su práctica profesional, la carencia de conocimientos para afrontar muchos de los retos que la naturaleza ofrecía. Inicialmente buscó la respuesta en la geología pero encontró que ésta carecía de la definición necesaria para la práctica de la ingeniería, por lo que se lanzó a una denodada tarea investigadora basada en el método experimental. Comenzó en 1917 con escasos medios, pero pronto llegó a desarrollar algunos ensayos que le permitieron establecer los primeros conceptos de una nueva ciencia, la Mecánica de Suelos. Ciencia que ve la luz en 1925 con la publicación de su libro Erdbaumechanik auf bodenphysikalischer Grundlage. Rápidamente otras figuras empezaron a hacer sus contribuciones científicas y de divulgación, como es el caso del ingeniero austriaco-americano Arthur Casagrande (1902), cuya iniciativa de organizar el primer Congreso Internacional de Mecánica de Suelos e Ingeniería de Cimentaciones proporcionó el altavoz que necesitaba esa nueva ciencia para su difusión. Al mismo tiempo, más figuras internacionales se fueron uniendo a este período de grandes avances e innovadores puntos de vista. Figuras como Alec Skempton (1914) en el Reino Unido, Ralph Peck (1912) en los Estados Unidos o Laurits Bjerrum (1918) en Noruega sobresalieron entre los grandes de la época. Esta tesis investiga las vidas de estos geotécnicos, artífices de múltiples avances científicos de la nueva ciencia denominada Mecánica de Suelos. Todas estas grandes figuras de la geotecnia fueron presidentes, en distintos periodos, de la Sociedad Internacional de Mecánica de Suelos e Ingeniería de Cimentaciones. Se deja constancia de ello en las biografías que han sido elaboradas a partir de fuentes de variada procedencia y de los datos cruzados encontrados sobre estos extraordinarios geotécnicos. Así, las biografías de Terzaghi, Casagrande, Skempton, Peck y Bjerrum contribuyen no solo a su conocimiento individual sino que constituyen conjuntamente un punto de vista privilegiado para la comprensión de los acontecimientos vividos por la Mecánica de Suelos en el segundo tercio del siglo XX, extendiéndose en algunos casos hasta los albores del siglo XXI. Las aportaciones científicas de estos geotécnicos encuentran también su lugar en la parte técnica de esta tesis, en la que sus contribuciones individuales iniciales que configuran los distintos capítulos conservan sus puntos de vista originales, lo que permite tener una visión de los principios de la Mecánica de Suelos desde su mismo origen. On reading several articles in the journal, Revista de Obras Públicas (Jiménez Salas, 1945), one recalls such leading figures as Coulomb (1773), Poncelet (1840), Rankine (1856), Culmann (1866), Mohr (1871) and Boussinesq (1876) among many others, who created the basis of scientific knowledge that would make the complicated task of construction progressively easier. However, their advances were approximations which suffered considerable discrepancies when faced with the behaviour of the forces of nature. There came a time when such discrepancies became all too evident. Substantial soil settlements when constructing modern buildings, embankment dam failures and grave landslides, during the construction of the Panama Canal for example, led the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) to form a committee in order to analyse construction practices of the time. Similar incidents had taken place in Europe, for example with railway slides, which in the case of Sweden, had resulted in heavy losses in both materials and human lives. During the practice of his career, the Austrian-American engineer Karl Terzaghi (1883) had encountered the many challenges posed by the forces of nature and the lack of knowledge at his disposal with which to overcome them. Terzaghi first sought a solution in geology only to discover that this lacked the necessary accuracy for the practice of engineering. He therefore threw himself into tireless research based on the experimental method. He began in 1917 on limited means but soon managed to develop several tests, which would allow him to establish the basic fundamentals of a new science; Soil Mechanics, a science which first saw the light of day on the publication of Terzaghi’s book, Erdbaumechanik auf bodenphysikalischer Grundlage. Other figures were quick to make their own scientific contributions. Such was the case of Austrian-American engineer, Arthur Casagrande (1902), whose initiative to organize the first International Congress of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering provided the springboard that this science needed. At the same time, other international figures were becoming involved in this period of great advances and innovative concepts. Figures including the likes of Alec Skempton (1914) in the United Kingdom, Ralph Peck (1912) in the United States, and Laurits Bjerrum (1918) in Norway stood out amongst the greatest of their time. This thesis investigates the lives of these geotechnical engineers to whom we are indebted for a great many scientific advances in this new science known as Soil Mechanics. Moreover, each of these eminent figures held the presidency of the International Society of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, record of which can be found in their biographies, drawn from diverse sources, and by crosschecking and referencing all the available information on these extraordinary geotechnical engineers. Thus, the biographies of Terzaghi, Casagrande, Skempton, Peck and Bjerrum not only serve to provide knowledge on the individual, but moreover, as a collective, they present us with an exceptional insight into the important developments which took place in Soil Mechanics in the second third of the 20th century, and indeed, in some cases, up to the dawn of the 21st. The scientific contributions of these geotechnical engineers also find their place in the technical part of this thesis in which the initial individual contributions which make up several chapters retain their original approaches allowing us a view of the principles of Soil Mechanics from its very beginnings.

Algunos datos históricos sobre la mina de plata de Pozo Rico (Guadalcanal, Sevilla)

La mina de plata de Guadalcanal (Sevilla) es una de las principales minas históricas españolas. Su riqueza hizo pensar que este yacimiento era el Potosí español, por eso, en 1555, el Estado se hizo cargo del mismo. Por ella pasaron importantes personajes, tales como Francisco Mendoza, Antonio Boteller, Juanelo Turriano, Jerónimo de Ayanz, los Fúcares, Lieberto Wolters, María Teresa Herbert, Thomas Sutton, Louis Le Camus, Guillermo Bowles, Cristóbal Störr, Juan Martín Hoppensak, Zacarías Helms, Fausto Elhuyar, Francisco de la Garza, el Marqués de la Remisa, Duncan Saw, etc. Este trabajo es una síntesis histórica de las minas. En ella podemos ver las innovaciones y la evolución de las técnicas productivas.

La transformación de la morada: una investigación sobre los invariantes arquitectónicos en la vivienda contemporánea

Le Corbusier denominó la nueva casa como la "machine à habiter / máquina de habitar", adaptándola a la revolución industrial que desde el inicio del siglo XX estaba cambiando el mundo. La casa, entendida como una máquina, sería un objeto útil, fabricado mediante el ensamblaje de piezas industrializadas al igual que un coche, un avión o un barco. Pero más adelante, en el prólogo del libro ‘Precisiones’, titulado ‘Prólogo americano’. Le Corbusier traslada sus ideas después del viaje a las Américas, escritas en el barco de regreso a Europa y en ellas encontramos la prueba más evidente de que algo está cambiando en él. En este nuevo enfoque contribuyen probablemente muchas cosas, tal vez algunas nunca lleguemos a saberlas, pero entre las que con toda probabilidad lo hacen de forma decisiva, están algunos de sus viajes. Norte de África, España o América del Sur. En los suburbios de Buenos Aires o en Río, llenos de casas hechas de plancha ondulada, sin corazón y sin alma, y que, a pesar de todo, tienen uno y otra; Le Corbusier recibe una lección de arquitectura que nunca olvidará y que le llevará a decir: “he visto una vivienda obrera de plancha ondulada, pero muy bien puesta, en la cual un rosal adornaba la puerta. Era todo un poema de los tiempos modernos” O bien “busco con verdadero afán esas casas que son casas de hombres y no casas de arquitectos". Al final de su vida, libre de un compromiso político o de una atadura excesivamente estricta con la construcción; sus propuestas son más orgánicas y no tan estructurales, basta ver la Cabanon que se construye para él y su mujer. En este trabajo; iniciado sobre la base de la conferencia que Martin Heidegger pronuncia el 5 de agosto de 1951 en Darmstadt, “Bauen Wohnen Denken”, apoyándose en el escrito de Santa Teresa de Cepeda (1515-1582), y guiados por sus siete Moradas del “Castillo Interior”, escrito del año 1577; se estudia la transformación de la casa y la invariancia de la morada. La casa posee uno de los mayores poderes de integración para los pensamientos, los recuerdos y los sueños del hombre. La casa en la vida del hombre, suplanta contingencias, multiplica sus consejos de continuidad. Sin ella el hombre sería un ser disperso. Es cuerpo y alma. Es el primer mundo del ser humano... Y siempre, en sus sueños, la casa es una gran cuna, como nos dice Bachelard. Ha habido una evidente evolución del concepto de vivienda, a lo largo del tiempo pero aún así todas las moradas siguen siendo reflejo de sus habitantes. La casa y la morada son dos cosas distintas. Cuando un hombre hace suya una casa, encuentra su morada. ABSTRACT Le Corbusier named the new house as the "machine à habiter / machine for living", adapting it to the industrial revolution that was changing the world from the beginning of the twentieth century. The house, resembled as a machine, was a useful object made by the assembly of industrial pieces like a car, an airplane or a boat. But later, after his trip to the Americas, and reflected at the preface, 'American Prologue', of his book called 'Clarifications', Le Corbusier evolved his ideas into a new way of thinking. Wrote on the boat back to Europe, the lines written in this book are the clear evidence that something has changed in him. We might never get to know all of the variables that influenced his new approach, but we can be certain that the trips to South America, North Africa and Spain played a pivotal role on the evolution of his thinking. In the suburbs of Buenos Aires or Rio, where he was exposed to roughly made houses, without any heart or soul, but nevertheless owned by men, Le Corbusier learnt an unforgettable lesson. Hence, he would retrospect: "I saw a corrugated iron worker house, but very well decorated with a rosebush garnishing the front door. It was a poem of the modern times" or "I deeply look forward for those houses that are people’s homes not architect’s ones". At the end of his life, free of political commitment or an overly strict attachment to the construction, his proposals are more organic and less structural, as represented by the Cabanon built for himself and his wife. In this paper, based on Martin’s Heidegger conference in Darmstadt “Bauen Wohnen Denken” (august 5th of 1951) and supported by Santa Teresa de Cepeda’s (1515-1582) letter and her Seven Mansions of the Interior Castle, transformation and invariance is studied. The house has one of the greatest powers of integration for the thoughts, memories and dreams of men. The house, in the life of an individual, overcome men contingencies and multiplies men advice for continuity. Without it, men would be a dispersed human being. The house is body and soul. It is the first world of the human being ... And always, in his dreams, “the house is a large cradle”, as said by Bachelard. There has been a clear evolution of the concept of housing over time. But after all, the house still remains as a reflection of its inhabitants. When a man makes a house his own, we can conclude, he has found what he can call his “morada”.