Efeito da adição de WC e Co na sinterização e propriedades mecânicas da alumina

Composites based on alumina (Al2O3), tungsten carbide (WC) and cobalt (Co) exhibit specific properties such as low density, high oxidation resistance, high melting point and high chemical inertia. That composite shows to be a promising material for application in various fields of engineering. In this work, the mechanical properties of the composite (Al2O3 – WC – Co), particularly density and hardness, were evaluated according to the effects of the variables of powder processing parameters, green compact and sintered. Powder composites with the composition of 80 wt% Al2O3, 18 wt% WC and 2 wt% Co were processed by high energy ball milling in a planetary mill for 50 hours as well as mixed by manual mixing in a glass vessel with the same proportion. Samples were collected (2, 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50 hours) during the milling process. Then, the powders were compacted in a cylindrical die with 5 mm in diameter in a uniaxial press with pressures of 200 and 400 MPa. The sintering was in two stages: first, the solid phase sintering was performed at 1126 and 1300 °C for 1 hour with a heating rate of 10 °C/min in a resistive furnace under argon atmosphere for green samples compacted in 200 and 400 MPa; the second sintering was performed on dilatometer in solid phase at 1300 °C for green sample compacted in 200 MPa, another sintering also was performed on dilatometer, this time in liquid phase at 1550 °C for green samples compacted in 200 and 400 MPa, with the same parameters used in resistive furnace. The raw materials were characterized by X – ray diffraction (XRD), X – ray fluorescence (XRF), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) and laser particlemeter. The sintered samples were subjected to microhardness testing. The results showed that high energy milling achieved to the objectives regarding the particle size and the dispersion of composite phases. However, the hardness did not achieve to significant results, this is an indication that the composite has low fracture toughness.

Effect of Single and Double Austenitization heat treatments on the Microstructure and Hardness of AISI D2 Tool Steel

This investigation is concerned with the study of effect of Double Austenitization (DA) and Single Austenitization (SA) heat treatment processes on microstructure and mechanical property of AISI D2type cold worked tool steel. To maximize hardness, tool steels are used in a quenched and tempered condition. This involves heating the material to the austenitizing temperature (∼850−1100 °C), quenching at an appropriate rate to form martensite, and tempering to reduce the retained austenite content and induce toughness. The merits of DA treatment isto promote dissolution of carbides at the same time proscribe grain coarsening significantly was attempted in D2 tool steel. The study has found that DA treatment has induced high hardness with insignificant growth in grains. The increase in hardness is attributed to increase in carbon content in matrix due to dissolution of carbides; whereas finer grains due to role of inclusions.

Effect of Single and Double Austenitization heat treatments on the Microstructure and Hardness of AISI D2 Tool Steel

This investigation is concerned with the study of effect of Double Austenitization (DA) and Single Austenitization (SA) heat treatment processes on microstructure and mechanical property of AISI D2type cold worked tool steel. To maximize hardness, tool steels are used in a quenched and tempered condition. This involves heating the material to the austenitizing temperature (∼850−1100 °C), quenching at an appropriate rate to form martensite, and tempering to reduce the retained austenite content and induce toughness. The merits of DA treatment isto promote dissolution of carbides at the same time proscribe grain coarsening significantly was attempted in D2 tool steel. The study has found that DA treatment has induced high hardness with insignificant growth in grains. The increase in hardness is attributed to increase in carbon content in matrix due to dissolution of carbides; whereas finer grains due to role of inclusions.

The role of material characterisation in the crush modelling of thermoplastic composite structures

The predictive capability of high fidelity finite element modelling, to accurately capture damage and crush behaviour of composite structures, relies on the acquisition of accurate material properties, some of which have necessitated the development of novel approaches. This paper details the measurement of interlaminar and intralaminar fracture toughness, the non-linear shear behaviour of carbon fibre (AS4)/thermoplastic Polyetherketoneketone (PEKK) composite laminates and the utilisation of these properties for the accurate computational modelling of crush. Double-cantilever-beam (DCB), four-point end-notched flexure (4ENF) and Mixed-mode bending (MMB) test configurations were used to determine the initiation and propagation fracture toughness in mode I, mode II and mixed-mode loading, respectively. Compact Tension (CT) and Compact Compression (CC) test samples were employed to determine the intralaminar longitudinal tensile and compressive fracture toughness. V-notched rail shear tests were used to measure the highly non-linear shear behaviour, associated with thermoplastic composites, and fracture toughness. Corresponding numerical models of these tests were developed for verification and yielded good correlation with the experimental response. This also confirmed the accuracy of the measured values which were then employed as input material parameters for modelling the crush behaviour of a corrugated test specimen.

The Transverse Crack Tension test revisited: An experimental and numerical study

Several problems arise when measuring the mode II interlaminar fracture toughness using a Transverse Crack Tension specimen; in particular, the fracture toughness depends on the geometry of the specimen and cannot be considered a material parameter. A preliminary experimental campaign was conducted on TCTs of different sizes but no fracture toughness was measured because the TCTs failed in an unacceptable way, invalidating the tests. A comprehensive numerical and experimental investigation is conducted to identify the main causes of this behaviour and a modification of the geometry of the specimen is proposed. It is believed that the obtained results represent a significant contribution in the understanding of the TCT test as a mode II characterization procedure and, at the same time, provide new guidelines to characterize the mode II crack propagation under tensile loads.

Développement de matériaux à base de protéines extraites du byssus de la moule bleue Mytilus edulis

Le byssus est un amas de fibres que les moules produisent afin de s’ancrer aux surfaces immergées sous l’eau. Ces fibres sont pourvues de propriétés mécaniques impressionnantes combinant rigidité, élasticité et ténacité élevées. De plus, elles possèdent un comportement d’auto-guérison de leurs propriétés mécaniques en fonction du temps lorsque la contrainte initialement appliquée est retirée. Les propriétés mécaniques de ces fibres sont le résultat de l’agencement hiérarchique de protéines de type copolymère blocs riches en collagène et de la présence de métaux formant des liens sacrificiels réversibles avec certains acides aminés comme les DOPA et les histidines. Bien que cette fibre soit très intéressante pour la production de matériaux grâce à son contenu élevé en collagène potentiellement biocompatible, cette ressource naturelle est traitée comme un déchet par les mytiliculteurs. L’objectif de cette thèse était de valoriser cette fibre en extrayant les protéines pour générer une nouvelle classe de matériaux biomimétiques. Un hydrolysat de protéines de byssus (BPH) riche en acides aminés chargés, i.e. ~30 % mol, et permettant de former des films a pu être généré. Lorsque solubilisé à pH 10.5, le BPH forme un hydrogel contenant des structures en triple hélice de collagène et des feuillets β anti-parallèles intra- et inter-moléculaires. Suite à l’évaporation de l’eau, le film de BPH résultant est insoluble en milieu aqueux à cause des structures secondaires très stables agissant comme points de réticulation effectifs. Les propriétés mécaniques des films de BPH sont modulables en fonction du pH. Au point isoélectrique (pI = 4.5), les interactions électrostatiques entre les charges opposées agissent comme points de réticulation et augmentent la rigidité des films et leur contrainte à la rupture sans affecter la déformation à la rupture. À pH plus élevé ou plus bas que le pI, les performances mécaniques des films sont plus faibles à cause de la répulsion entre les groupements fonctionnels de même charge qui interagissent plutôt avec les molécules d’eau et causent le gonflement de la matrice protéique des films. Le BPH contenant un nombre élevé d’acides aminés chargés et réactifs, nous avons pu réticuler les films de manière covalente à l’aide d’EDC ou de glutaraldéhyde. Les propriétés mécaniques des films sont modulables en fonction de la concentration d’EDC utilisée lors de la réticulation ou en employant du glutaraldéhyde comme agent réticulant. Les films sont à la fois plus rigides et plus forts avec un degré de réticulation élevé, mais perdent leur extensibilité à mesure que les segments libres de s’étirer lors d’une traction deviennent entravés par les points de réticulation. La réticulation augmente également la résistance à la dégradation enzymatique par la collagénase, les films les plus fortement réticulés lui étant pratiquement insensibles. La spectroscopie infrarouge montre enfin que la réticulation entraîne une transition de feuillets β anti-parallèles inter-moléculaires vers des structures de type hélices de collagène/PPII hydratées. Des liens sacrificiels ont été formés dans les films de BPH par traitement au pI et/ou avec différents métaux, i.e. Na+, Ca2+, Fe3+, afin de moduler les propriétés mécaniques statiques et d’évaluer le rôle de ces traitements sur le comportement d’auto-guérison lors de tests mécaniques cycliques avec différents temps de repos. Plus la valence des ions métalliques ajoutés augmente, plus les propriétés mécaniques statiques affichent un module, une contrainte à la rupture et une ténacité élevés sans toutefois affecter la déformation à la rupture, confirmant la formation de liens sacrificiels. Les tests mécaniques cycliques montrent que les traitements au pI ou avec Ca2+ créent des liens sacrificiels ioniques réversibles qui mènent à un processus d’auto-guérison des performances mécaniques dépendant du pH. L’ajout de Fe3+ à différentes concentrations module les performances mécaniques sur un plus large intervalle et la nature plus covalente de son interaction avec les acides aminés permet d’atteindre des valeurs nettement plus élevées que les autres traitements étudiés. Le Fe3+ permet aussi la formation de liens sacrificiels réversibles menant à l’auto-guérison des propriétés mécaniques. Les spectroscopies Raman et infrarouge confirment que le fer crée des liaisons avec plusieurs acides aminés, dont les histidines et les DOPA. Les résultats dans leur ensemble démontrent que les films de BPH sont des hydrogels biomimétiques du byssus qui peuvent être traités ou réticulés de différentes façons afin de moduler leurs performances mécaniques. Ils pourraient ainsi servir de matrices pour des applications potentielles dans le domaine pharmaceutique ou en ingénierie tissulaire.

Evaluación de tenacidad a la fractura e integridad estructural de tubos de generadores de vapor nucleares.

Dado el impacto negativo asociado a la ocurrencia de fallas en tubos de generadores de vapor (TGVs) en centrales nucleares, el estudio de la integridad estructural de éstos ha comenzado a recibir mayor atención recientemente. Diversas metodologías basadas en análisis de carga límite han sido propuestas para asegurar la integridad estructural de los tubos, según los requerimientos establecidos por las autoridades regulatorias. Éstas han conducido, sin embargo, a la definición de criterios de reparación o taponado de TGVs excesivamente conservativos. Por lo tanto, con el objetivo de reducir la cantidad de tubos innecesariamente removidos de servicio, nuevos criterios de evaluación de integridad han sido propuestos recientemente en la literatura. En este contexto, la mecánica de fractura elastoplástica se presenta como una alternativa para la evaluación de la integridad de TGVs, requiriéndose dos elementos para su aplicación: la estimación de la fuerza impulsora en términos del parámetro elastoplástico (por ejemplo, la integral J) y la medición experimental de la tenacidad a la fractura del material de los tubos (por ejemplo, a través de la curva de resistencia J-R). Este trabajo presenta el desarrollo de técnicas experimentales no normalizadas para la determinación de curvas J-R para TGVs con fisuras pasantes circunferenciales y longitudinales. Debido a las dimensiones reducidas de los TGVs, diferentes probetas no normalizadas fueron propuestas. Además, en los ensayos se utilizaron condiciones de carga de tracción y flexión con el objetivo de modelar más adecuadamente los estados tensionales y las condiciones de constraint reales en TGVs. Los valores de la integral J fueron estimados utilizando el método del factor η. La aptitud del método fue evaluada a partir de simulaciones numéricas de los ensayos propuestos mediante análisis elastoplásticos con la técnica de elementos finitos. Se encontró que condiciones de mayor constraint asociadas con fisuras profundas y cargas de flexión favorecen la validez del método del factor η, mientras que configuraciones de menor constraint dan como resultado factores η que exhiben una mayor dependencia con el nivel de carga aplicada. También se observó que los factores η basados en la apertura de la boca de la fisura (Crack Mouth Opening Displacement o CMOD) presentan una dependencia mucho menor con el nivel de carga respecto a los factores η definidos a partir del desplazamiento del punto de aplicación de la carga (Load Line Displacement o LLD). Se presentan los valores del factor η para las probetas estudiadas con fisuras profundas (a/W ≥ 0,40). Se realizaron ensayos de fractura a temperatura ambiente y 300 °C con probetas obtenidas de TGVs nucleares fabricados a partir de las aleaciones 690 (Ni: 61; Cr: 29; Fe: 8,95, % en peso) y 800 (Ni: 33; Cr: 21,6; Fe: 42,2, % en peso). Durante los ensayos de fractura a temperatura ambiente, la extensión estable de fisura fue medida mediante una técnica óptica utilizando un microscopio digital. Para estos ensayos también se aplicó el método de normalización que propone la norma ASTM E1820-15 en el Anexo 15, encontrándose una buena coincidencia entre las longitudes estimadas por éste y las medidas ópticamente. De esta manera, el método de normalización fue utilizado para los ensayos a alta temperatura. Los resultados experimentales mostraron que ambos materiales tienen elevadas tenacidades a la fractura, siendo la aleación 800 la que presentó curvas J-R más elevadas que la aleación 690 tanto para fisuras circunferenciales como longitudinales. Las curvas J-R para ambas aleaciones mostraron un efecto marcado con la orientación de la fisura, es decir que existe una importante anisotropía en las propiedades de fractura: las fisuras circunferenciales presentaron curvas J-R más elevadas que las fisuras longitudinales. El nivel de constraint desarrollado en los ensayos, dado por las condiciones de carga de tracción y flexión, evidenció poco efecto sobre las curvas J-R para probetas con fisuras profundas (a/W ~ 0,50). A su vez, la temperatura de ensayo (temperatura ambiente y 300 °C) presentó un efecto prácticamente nulo para ambas aleaciones. Usando las propiedades de fractura obtenidas en este trabajo, la metodología FAD (Failure Assessment Diagram) fue propuesta y utilizada para la predicción de las condiciones de falla de TGVs fisurados para diferentes geometrías de fisura y condiciones de carga. La comparación entre análisis teóricos y datos experimentales muestra la potencialidad del FAD como una metodología capaz de predecir adecuadamente las fallas de estos componentes.

Adolescent boys’ health : managing emotions, masculinities and subjective social status

The health of adolescent boys is complex and surprisingly little is known about how adolescent boys perceive, conceptualise and experience their health. Thus, the overall aim of this thesis was to explore adolescent boys’ perceptions and experiences of health, emotions, masculinity and subjective social status (SSS). This thesis consists of a qualitative, a quantitative and a mixed methods study. The qualitative study aimed to explore how adolescent boys understand the concept of health and what they find important for its achievement. Furthermore, the adolescent boys’ views of masculinity, emotion management and their potential effects on wellbeing were explored. For this purpose, individual interviews were conducted with 33 adolescent boys aged 16-17 years. The quantitative study aimed to investigate the associations between pride, shame and health in adolescence. Data were collected through a cross-sectional postal survey with 705 adolescents. The purpose of the mixed methods study was to investigate associations between SSS in school, socioeconomic status (SES) and self-rated health (SRH), and to explore the concept of SSS in school. Cross-sectional data were combined with interview data in which the meaning of SSS was further explored. Individual interviews with 35 adolescents aged 17-18 years were conducted. In the qualitative study, data were analysed using Grounded Theory. In the quantitative study, statistical analyses (e.g., chi-square test and uni- and multivariable logistic regression analyses) were performed. In the mixed method study, a combination of statistical analyses and thematic network analysis was applied. The results showed that there was a complexity in how the adolescent boys viewed, experienced, dealt with and valued health. On a conceptual level, they perceived health as holistic but when dealing with difficult emotions, they were prone to separate the body from the mind. Thus, the adolescent boys experienced a difference between health as a concept and health as an experience (paper I). Concerning emotional orientation in masculinity, two main categories of masculine conceptions were identified: a gender-normative masculinity and a non-gender-normative masculinity (paper II). Gender-normative masculinity comprised two seemingly opposite emotional masculinity orientations, one towards toughness and the other towards sensitivity, both of which were highly influenced by contextual and situational group norms and demands, despite that their expressions are in contrast to each other. Non-gender-normative masculinity included an orientation towards sincerity, emphasising the personal values of the boys. Emotions were expressed more independently of peer group norms. The findings suggest that different masculinities and the expression of emotions are intricately intertwined and that managing emotions is vital for wellbeing. The present findings also showed that both shame and pride were significantly associated with SRH, and furthermore, that there seems to be a protective effect of experiencing pride for health (paper III). The results also demonstrated that SSS is strongly related to SRH, and high SRH is related to high SSS, and further that the positioning was done in a gendered space (paper IV). Results from all studies suggest that the emotional and relational aspects, as well as perceived SSS, were strongly related to SRH. Positive emotions, trustful relationships and having a sense of belonging were important factors for health and pride was an important emotion protecting health. Physical health, on the other hand, had a more subordinated value, but the body was experienced as an important tool to achieve health. Even though health was mainly perceived in a holistic manner by the boys, there were boys who were prone to dichotomise the health experience into a mind-body dualism when having to deal with difficult emotions. In conclusion, this thesis demonstrates that young, masculine health is largely experienced through emotions and relationships between individuals and their contexts affected by gendered practices. Health is to feel and function well in mind and body and to have trusting relationships. The results support theories on health as a social construction of interconnected processes. Having confidence in self-esteem, access to trustful relationships and the courage to resist traditional masculine norms while still reinforcing and maintaining social status are all conducive to good health. Researchers as well as professionals need to consider the complexity of adolescent boys’ health in which norms, values, relationships and gender form its social determinants. Those working with young boys should encourage them to integrate physical, social and emotional aspects of health into an interconnected and holistic experience.

Desenvolvimento de um cerâmico Al2O3/TI(C,N) para uso em maquinação

O principal objetivo deste trabalho é preparar um cermeto do tipo Al2O3/Ti(C,N) com propriedades mecânicas adequadas à sua utilização na maquinação de materiais do tipo DIN ISO 513:K01-K10 e ISO H01-H10. De forma a incrementar a sinterabilidade do cermeto investigou-se o efeito da adição de dopantes metálicos, nomeadamente alumínio metálico (Al) e hidreto de titânio (TiH2) e o efeito da substituição da moagem convencional por moagem de alta energia. As variáveis das etapas principais de processamento, i.e., da moagem, prensagem e sinterização, foram selecionadas com trabalho realizado quer na Universidade de Aveiro quer na empresa Palbit. Foram preparadas três composições do cermeto Al2O3/Ti(C,N) com adições de 5%TiH2, 1%Al e 5%TiH21%Al através da moagem de alta energia. Os parâmetros de moagem, i.e. a velocidade de rotação, o rácio bolas/pó e o tempo de moagem foram otimizados para os seguintes valores: 350 rpm, 10:1 e 5 h, respetivamente. A utilização da moagem de alta energia permitiu uma redução do tamanho de partícula dos pós até aproximadamente 100 nm e a obtenção de uma boa uniformidade da distribuição das fases (Al2O3+Ti(C,N)). A etapa de conformação foi efetuada por prensagem uniaxial seguida de prensagem isostática. A avaliação da reatividade dos cermetos através de dilatometria em atmosfera de vácuo revelou que a densificação é maioritariamente realizada em estado sólido. A adição de apenas 1%Al é a menos efetiva para a densificação. Os cermetos foram sinterizados através de sinterização convencional em forno de vazio a 1650ºC e prensagem a quente (1650ºC com uma pressão uniaxial de 25 MPa). Os valores de densificação obtidos, aproximadamente 80% e 100%, respetivamente, indicam que a aplicação de pressão durante a sinterização é efetiva para atingir densificações elevadas nos compactos, compatíveis com as suas aplicações tecnológicas. As propriedades mecânicas de dureza e de tenacidade avaliadas nos três cermetos apresentaram valores aproximados de 1800-1900 HV50 para a dureza e entre 5.4 e 7.7 MPa.m1/2 para a tenacidade à fratura.

Evaluación de tenacidad a la fractura e integridad estructural de tubos de generadores de vapor nucleares.

Dado el impacto negativo asociado a la ocurrencia de fallas en tubos de generadores de vapor (TGVs) en centrales nucleares, el estudio de la integridad estructural de éstos ha comenzado a recibir mayor atención recientemente. Diversas metodologías basadas en análisis de carga límite han sido propuestas para asegurar la integridad estructural de los tubos, según los requerimientos establecidos por las autoridades regulatorias. Éstas han conducido, sin embargo, a la definición de criterios de reparación o taponado de TGVs excesivamente conservativos. Por lo tanto, con el objetivo de reducir la cantidad de tubos innecesariamente removidos de servicio, nuevos criterios de evaluación de integridad han sido propuestos recientemente en la literatura. En este contexto, la mecánica de fractura elastoplástica se presenta como una alternativa para la evaluación de la integridad de TGVs, requiriéndose dos elementos para su aplicación: la estimación de la fuerza impulsora en términos del parámetro elastoplástico (por ejemplo, la integral J) y la medición experimental de la tenacidad a la fractura del material de los tubos (por ejemplo, a través de la curva de resistencia J-R). Este trabajo presenta el desarrollo de técnicas experimentales no normalizadas para la determinación de curvas J-R para TGVs con fisuras pasantes circunferenciales y longitudinales. Debido a las dimensiones reducidas de los TGVs, diferentes probetas no normalizadas fueron propuestas. Además, en los ensayos se utilizaron condiciones de carga de tracción y flexión con el objetivo de modelar más adecuadamente los estados tensionales y las condiciones de constraint reales en TGVs. Los valores de la integral J fueron estimados utilizando el método del factor η. La aptitud del método fue evaluada a partir de simulaciones numéricas de los ensayos propuestos mediante análisis elastoplásticos con la técnica de elementos finitos. Se encontró que condiciones de mayor constraint asociadas con fisuras profundas y cargas de flexión favorecen la validez del método del factor η, mientras que configuraciones de menor constraint dan como resultado factores η que exhiben una mayor dependencia con el nivel de carga aplicada. También se observó que los factores η basados en la apertura de la boca de la fisura (Crack Mouth Opening Displacement o CMOD) presentan una dependencia mucho menor con el nivel de carga respecto a los factores η definidos a partir del desplazamiento del punto de aplicación de la carga (Load Line Displacement o LLD). Se presentan los valores del factor η para las probetas estudiadas con fisuras profundas (a/W ≥ 0,40). Se realizaron ensayos de fractura a temperatura ambiente y 300 °C con probetas obtenidas de TGVs nucleares fabricados a partir de las aleaciones 690 (Ni: 61; Cr: 29; Fe: 8,95, % en peso) y 800 (Ni: 33; Cr: 21,6; Fe: 42,2, % en peso). Durante los ensayos de fractura a temperatura ambiente, la extensión estable de fisura fue medida mediante una técnica óptica utilizando un microscopio digital. Para estos ensayos también se aplicó el método de normalización que propone la norma ASTM E1820-15 en el Anexo 15, encontrándose una buena coincidencia entre las longitudes estimadas por éste y las medidas ópticamente. De esta manera, el método de normalización fue utilizado para los ensayos a alta temperatura. Los resultados experimentales mostraron que ambos materiales tienen elevadas tenacidades a la fractura, siendo la aleación 800 la que presentó curvas J-R más elevadas que la aleación 690 tanto para fisuras circunferenciales como longitudinales. Las curvas J-R para ambas aleaciones mostraron un efecto marcado con la orientación de la fisura, es decir que existe una importante anisotropía en las propiedades de fractura: las fisuras circunferenciales presentaron curvas J-R más elevadas que las fisuras longitudinales. El nivel de constraint desarrollado en los ensayos, dado por las condiciones de carga de tracción y flexión, evidenció poco efecto sobre las curvas J-R para probetas con fisuras profundas (a/W ~ 0,50). A su vez, la temperatura de ensayo (temperatura ambiente y 300 °C) presentó un efecto prácticamente nulo para ambas aleaciones. Usando las propiedades de fractura obtenidas en este trabajo, la metodología FAD (Failure Assessment Diagram) fue propuesta y utilizada para la predicción de las condiciones de falla de TGVs fisurados para diferentes geometrías de fisura y condiciones de carga. La comparación entre análisis teóricos y datos experimentales muestra la potencialidad del FAD como una metodología capaz de predecir adecuadamente las fallas de estos componentes.

CIVIL WAR SETTLEMENTS AND COMBATANTS’ BEHAVIORS: STRATEGY, PERCEPTION, AND REPUTATION

Three projects in my dissertation focus on the termination of internal conflicts based on three critical factors: a combatant’s bargaining strategy, perceptions of relative capabilities, and reputation for toughness. My dissertation aims to provide the relevant theoretical framework to understand war termination beyond the simple two-party bargaining context. The first project focuses on the government’s strategic use of peace agreements. The first project suggests that peace can also be designed strategically to create a better bargain in the near future by changing the current power balance, and thus the timing and nature of peace is not solely a function of overcoming current barriers to successful bargaining. As long as the government has no overwhelming capability to defeat all rebel groups simultaneously, it needs to keep multiple rebel groups as divided as possible. This strategic partial peace helps to deter multiple rebel groups from collaborating in the battlefield and increases the chances of victory against non-signatories. The second project deals with combatants’ perceptions of relative capabilities. While bargaining theories of war suggest that war ends when combatants share a similar perception about their relative capabilities, combatants’ perceptions about relative capabilities are not often homogeneous. While focusing on information problems, this paper examines when a rebel group underestimates the government’s supremacy in relative capabilities and how this heterogeneous perception about the power gap influences negotiated settlements. The third project deals with the tension between different types of reputations in the context of civil wars: 1) a reputation for resolve and 2) a reputation for keeping human rights standards. In the context of civil wars, the use of indiscriminate violence by the government is costly, and as such, it signals the government’s toughness (or resolve) to rebel groups. I argue that the rebels are more likely to accept the government’s offer when the government recently engaged in indiscriminate violence against civilians during the conflict. This effect, however, is conditional on the government’s international human rights reputation; suggesting that rebel groups interpret this violence as a signal particularly when the government does not have a penchant for attacking civilians in general.

Characterization of sea water ageing effects on mechanical properties of carbon/epoxy composites for tidal turbine blades

In recent years, many tidal turbine projects have been developed using composites blades. Tidal turbine blades are subject to ocean forces and sea water aggressions, and the reliability of these components is crucial to the profitability of ocean energy recovery systems. The majority of tidal turbine developers have preferred carbon/epoxy blades, so there is a need to understand how prolonged immersion in the ocean affects these composites. In this study the long term behaviour of different carbon/epoxy composites has been studied using accelerated ageing tests. A significant reduction of composite strengths has been observed after saturation of water in the material. For longer immersions only small further changes in these properties occur. No significant changes have been observed for moduli nor for composite toughness. The effect of sea water ageing on damage thresholds and kinetics has been studied and modelled. After saturation, the damage threshold is modified while kinetics of damage development remain the same.

Computational modeling of laser-induced delamination testing of thin films

Thin film adhesion often determines microelectronic device reliability and it is therefore essential to have experimental techniques that accurately and efficiently characterize it. Laser-induced delamination is a novel technique that uses laser-generated stress waves to load thin films at high strain rates and extract the fracture toughness of the film/substrate interface. The effectiveness of the technique in measuring the interface properties of metallic films has been documented in previous studies. The objective of the current effort is to model the effect of residual stresses on the dynamic delamination of thin films. Residual stresses can be high enough to affect the crack advance and the mode mixity of the delimitation event, and must therefore be adequately modeled to make accurate and repeatable predictions of fracture toughness. The equivalent axial force and bending moment generated by the residual stresses are included in a dynamic, nonlinear finite element model of the delaminating film, and the impact of residual stresses on the final extent of the interfacial crack, the relative contribution of shear failure, and the deformed shape of the delaminated film is studied in detail. Another objective of the study is to develop techniques to address issues related to the testing of polymeric films. These type of films adhere well to silicon and the resulting crack advance is often much smaller than for metallic films, making the extraction of the interface fracture toughness more difficult. The use of an inertial layer which enhances the amount of kinetic energy trapped in the film and thus the crack advance is examined. It is determined that the inertial layer does improve the crack advance, although in a relatively limited fashion. The high interface toughness of polymer films often causes the film to fail cohesively when the crack front leaves the weakly bonded region and enters the strong interface. The use of a tapered pre-crack region that provides a more gradual transition to the strong interface is examined. The tapered triangular pre-crack geometry is found to be effective in reducing the stresses induced thereby making it an attractive option. We conclude by studying the impact of modifying the pre-crack geometry to enable the testing of multiple polymer films.

Design of unique composites based on aromatic thermosetting copolyesters

Aromatic thermosetting copolyester (ATSP) has promise in high-temperature applications. It can be employed as a bulk polymer, as a coating and as a matrix for carbon fiber composites (ATSP/C composites). This work focuses on the applications of high performance ATSP/C composites. The morphology of the ATSP matrix in the presence of carbon fiber was studied. The effect of liquid crystalline character of starting oligomers used to prepare ATSP on the final crystal structure of the ATSP/C composite was evaluated. Matrices obtained by crosslinking of both liquid crystalline oligomers (ATSP2) and non-liquid crystalline oligomers (ATSP1) tend to crystallize in presence of carbon fibers. The crystallite size of ATSP2 is 4 times that of ATSP1. Composites made from ATSP2 yield tougher matrices compared to those made from ATSP1. Thus toughened matrices could be achieved without incorporating any additives by just changing the morphology of the final polymer. The flammability characteristics of ATSP were also studied. The limiting oxygen index (LOI) of bulk ATSP was found to be 40% whereas that of ATSP/C composites is estimated to be 85%. Thus, ATSP shows potential to be used as a flame resistant material, and also as an aerospace reentry shield. Mechanical properties of the ATSP/C composite were characterized. ATSP was observed to bond strongly with reinforcing carbon fibers. The tensile strength, modulus and shear modulus were comparable to those of conventionally used high temperature epoxy resins. ATSP shows a unique capability for healing of interlaminar cracks on application of heat and pressure, via the Interchain Transesterification Reaction (ITR). ITR can also be used for reduction in void volume and healing of microcracks. Thus, ATSP resin systems provide a unique intrinsic repair mechanism compared to any other thermosetting systems in use today. Preliminary studies on measurement of residual stresses for ATSP/C composites indicate that the stresses induced are much lower than that in epoxy/C composites. Thermal fatigue testing suggests that ATSP shows better resistance to microcracking compared to epoxy resins.

Manufacturing conditioned roughness and wear of biomedical oxide ceramics for all-ceramic knee implants

Background: Ceramic materials are used in a growing proportion of hip joint prostheses due to their wear resistance and biocompatibility properties. However, ceramics have not been applied successfully in total knee joint endoprostheses to date. One reason for this is that with strict surface quality requirements, there are significant challenges with regard to machining. High-toughness bioceramics can only be machined by grinding and polishing processes. The aim of this study was to develop an automated process chain for the manufacturing of an all-ceramic knee implant. Methods: A five-axis machining process was developed for all-ceramic implant components. These components were used in an investigation of the influence of surface conformity on wear behavior under simplified knee joint motion. Results: The implant components showed considerably reduced wear compared to conventional material combinations. Contact area resulting from a variety of component surface shapes, with a variety of levels of surface conformity, greatly influenced wear rate. Conclusions: It is possible to realize an all-ceramic knee endoprosthesis device, with a precise and affordable manufacturing process. The shape accuracy of the component surfaces, as specified by the design and achieved during the manufacturing process, has a substantial influence on the wear behavior of the prosthesis. This result, if corroborated by results with a greater sample size, is likely to influence the design parameters of such devices.