Polluting production – environmentally sound alternatives; A general model of production externalities

With the determination of principal parameters of producing and pollution abatement technologies, this paper quantifies abatement and external costs at the social optimum and analyses the dynamic relationship between technological development and the above-mentioned costs. With the partial analysis of parameters, the paper presents the impacts on the level of pollution and external costs of extensive and intensive environmental protection, market demand change and product fees, and not environmental protection oriented technological development. Parametrical cost calculation makes the drawing up of two useful rules of thumb possible in connection with the rate of government in-terventions. Also, the paradox of technological development aiming at intensive environmental protection will become apparent.

Az egyensúlyi ráták unicitása és a bérráta pozitivitása a Neumann-modell általánosításaiban (Uniqueness of equilibrium rates and the positive value of the wage rate in generalizations from the Neumann model)

Cikkünk arról a paradox jelenségről szól, hogy a fogyasztást explicit módon megjelenítő Neumann-modell egyensúlyi megoldásaiban a munkabért meghatározó létszükségleti termékek ára esetenként nulla lehet, és emiatt a reálbér egyensúlyi értéke is nulla lesz. Ez a jelenség mindig bekövetkezik az olyan dekomponálható gazdaságok esetén, amelyekben eltérő növekedési és profitrátájú, alternatív egyensúlyi megoldások léteznek. A jelenség sokkal áttekinthetőbb formában tárgyalható a modell Leontief-eljárásra épülő egyszerűbb változatában is, amit ki is használunk. Megmutatjuk, hogy a legnagyobbnál alacsonyabb szintű növekedési tényezőjű megoldások közgazdasági szempontból értelmetlenek, és így érdektelenek. Ezzel voltaképpen egyrészt azt mutatjuk meg, hogy Neumann kiváló intuíciója jól működött, amikor ragaszkodott modellje egyértelmű megoldásához, másrészt pedig azt is, hogy ehhez nincs szükség a gazdaság dekomponálhatóságának feltételezésére. A vizsgált téma szorosan kapcsolódik az általános profitráta meghatározásának - Sraffa által modern formába öntött - Ricardo-féle elemzéséhez, illetve a neoklasszikus növekedéselmélet nevezetes bér-profit, illetve felhalmozás-fogyasztás átváltási határgörbéihez, ami jelzi a téma elméleti és elmélettörténeti érdekességét is. / === / In the Marx-Neumann version of the Neumann model introduced by Morishima, the use of commodities is split between production and consumption, and wages are determined as the cost of necessary consumption. In such a version it may occur that the equilibrium prices of all goods necessary for consumption are zero, so that the equilibrium wage rate becomes zero too. In fact such a paradoxical case will always arise when the economy is decomposable and the equilibrium not unique in terms of growth and interest rate. It can be shown that a zero equilibrium wage rate will appear in all equilibrium solutions where growth and interest rate are less than maximal. This is another proof of Neumann's genius and intuition, for he arrived at the uniqueness of equilibrium via an assumption that implied that the economy was indecomposable, a condition relaxed later by Kemeny, Morgenstern and Thompson. This situation occurs also in similar models based on Leontief technology and such versions of the Marx-Neumann model make the roots of the problem more apparent. Analysis of them also yields an interesting corollary to Ricardo's corn rate of profit: the real cause of the awkwardness is bad specification of the model: luxury commodities are introduced without there being a final demand for them, and production of them becomes a waste of resources. Bad model specification shows up as a consumption coefficient incompatible with the given technology in the more general model with joint production and technological choice. For the paradoxical situation implies the level of consumption could be raised and/or the intensity of labour diminished without lowering the equilibrium rate of the growth and interest. This entails wasteful use of resources and indicates again that the equilibrium conditions are improperly specified. It is shown that the conditions for equilibrium can and should be redefined for the Marx-Neumann model without assuming an indecomposable economy, in a way that ensures the existence of an equilibrium unique in terms of the growth and interest rate coupled with a positive value for the wage rate, so confirming Neumann's intuition. The proposed solution relates closely to findings of Bromek in a paper correcting Morishima's generalization of wage/profit and consumption/investment frontiers.

Visszatérhet-e a "nagy elmélet" a közgazdaságtanban? Megjegyzések a rendszerparadigma elmélettörténetéhez (Can the "grand theory" return to economics? Notes on the theoretical history of the system paradigm)

Kornai János rendszerparadigma-fogalmából és az ott felsorolt közgazdászok névsorából kiindulva, a tanulmány kiemel néhány mozzanatot ennek eszmetörténeti előzményeiből. A hatvanas évek szociológiai irodalmában időszerűtlennek tartották a nagy elmélet létrehozását, a nyolcvanas évek társadalomtudományában viszont már a hagyományos nagy rendszeralkotás és elbeszélésmód visszatérését méltatták. Adam Smith közgazdaságtanát a társadalmi érintkezés átfogó elmélete részének szánta, amely tartalmazza a jog, politika és erkölcs elveit és történetét. Ezt szemlélteti a kereskedelmi társadalom paradoxonának elemzése és annak bemutatása, hogyan vezetett a fényűzés a szabadság helyreállításához és a rendszeres kormányzat létrejöttéhez. Marx és a német történeti iskola egyaránt törekedett a társadalom történeti fejlődéstörvényeinek feltárására, noha kölcsönösen elutasították egymás felfogásának többi elemét. Schumpeter életművét az a törekvés határozta meg, hogy összekapcsolja az elméleti analízist és a történeti leírást, hogy a gazdasági fejlődés elemzéséből kiindulva megalkossa a társadalmi élet különböző területeinek interdependenciáját bemutató elméletet. / === / The study starts from János Kornai's concept of a system paradigm and the list of economists there to lift certain elements from its antecedents in intellectual history. The sociological writers of the 1960s thought it was inopportune to create a grand theory, while the social scientists of the 1980s were busy celebrating the return of the great traditional system-creating process and its mode of narration. Adam Smith presented his economics as part of a comprehensive theory of social organization that would cover the principles and history of law, politics and morality. This is illustrated by his analysis of the paradox of commercial society and his demonstration of how wealth led to the restoration of liberty and the establishment of regular governance. Marx and the German historical school both strove to identify laws of the historical development of society, although they each rejected the other elements of the other's concept. Schumpeter's oeuvre was marked by an effort to combine theoretical analysis with historical description, so that from an analysis of economic development he could arrive at a theory presenting the interdependence of the various areas of social activity.

Zöldtetők fejlesztési kérdései és lehetőségei a fenntarthatóság jegyében

Napjaink nagyvárosi zöldfelületeinek tárgyalásakor immár nem lehet fi gyelmen kívül hagyni a zöldtetőket (www.greenroofs.com). A zöldtetők defi níciójuk szerint olyan tetők, tetőelemek, amelyek vegetációval borítottak és szerkezetük szervesen integrálódik az épületszerkezetbe (vagyis ha például egy teraszt teljesen beborítunk cserepes növényekkel, attól az még nem lesz zöldtető). A zöldtetők legnagyobb előnye paradox módon nem az, amelyet a városi zöldfelület jelent, vagyis hogy lazítja a város szerkezetét, redukálja a negatív klimatikus hatásokat, illetve helyet ad a rekreációnak, hanem éppen ellenkezőleg, mint tetőtípus az adott épületre illetve annak szerkezetére és belső klímájára hat leginkább.

A társadalmi egyenlőtlenségek új színterei a felsőoktatásban

Az oktatásban megnyilvánuló társadalmi egyenlőtlenségek, az oktatási rendszer szerepe az egyenlőtlenségek újratermelődésében a szociológiai kutatások egyik alapkérdésévé vált a 20. század második felében. A középfokú képzés kiterjesztése következtében fontos társadalmi vizsgálati probléma lett, hogy a különböző társadalmi rétegek mennyiben tudják elérni a középfokú végzettséget, illetve annak mely típusát tudják elérni, továbbá, hogy milyen szerepe van az általános iskolának az esélyek nivellálásában (avagy paradox módon a növelésében). Az európai szociológiában Pierre Bourdieu (1978) alapozta meg az erről való gondolkodást. Magyarországon Ferge Zsuzsa (1980) tette ismertté a Bourdieu-i paradigmát, és ezzel elindította a magyar szociológia egyik legjelentősebb eredményeket hozó, kiváló kutatók egész sorát magába foglaló kutatási irányát.

Nők a vállalati vezetőtestületekben és irányításban Magyarországon

Magyarországon napjainkra többszörösen is paradox helyzet állt elő: egyrészt az utóbbi évtizedekben a fiatal női korosztályok képzettsége egyértelműen túlszárnyalja a férfiakét, mégsem tudják azt kamatoztatni a gazdasági élet vezető pozícióiban. Másrészt, míg húsz - huszonöt évvel ezelőtt európai összehasonlításban meglehetősen magas volt a női vezetők aránya Magyarországon, ez a viszonylagosan jó helyzet megszűnt. A tanulmány a nők útjában álló legfontosabb, összetett strukturális és kulturális tényezőket foglalja össze. A statisztikai és kvantitatív szociológiai adatgyűjtéseken túl a Szerző bemutatja a női vezetők elfogadottságára vonatkozó legfontosabb kvalitatív eredményeit. Ezek a magyar társadalom tradicionális nemi viszonyrendszeréről árulkodnak.

A láthatatlan kéz – szemelvények egy metafora történetéből (The invisible hand - extracts from the history of a metaphor)

A láthatatlan kéz Adam Smith nyomán a közgazdaságtan legismertebb metaforája lett, de jelentősége és értelmezése máig megosztja a közgazdászokat és eszmetörténészeket. Az interpretációk skálája rendkívül széles: mértékadó közgazdászok szerint ez a közgazdaságtan alapeszméje, míg mások Smith ironikus tréfájának vélik. A tanulmány áttekinti a láthatatlan kéz Smith előtti használatát teológiai, politikai és irodalmi szövegekben és a hozzájuk kapcsolódó interpretációkat. Ezt követően bemutatja, hogyan alkalmazta Smith a nevezetes kifejezést a merkantilista politika ironikus és paradox kritikájaként, és miként került a 19. század végétől e metafora a Smith-olvasatokban központi helyre, majd miként vált kérdésessé ez a felfogás a 2008-as válság nyomán. ____ Adam Smith's phrase the invisible hand has become the best-known metaphor in economics, yet both its interpretation and its relevance are hotly debated by economists and intellectual historians. The range of opinions is wide: several leading economists view it as the founding idea in economics and social studies, some historians see it as an ironic jest by Smith. The study surveys the different uses of the metaphor in theological, political and literary texts before Smith and reconstructs the "invisible hand" passage in The Wealth of Nations as an ironic and paradoxical critique of mercantilist policy. A vast literature has emerged since the late 19th century treating the metaphor in various way, ranging from the description and justification of free markets to the claim that it is a purely fictitious mechanism. The critical approach to it has become stronger since the great recession of 2008.

Szolgálatosodás Nyugat-Európában és Magyarországon. Hol tartunk és merre haladunk? – Egy nemzetközi felmérés nyomán (Servitization in Western Europe and Hungary – Based on an international survey)

A szerző tanulmányában nyugat-európai és magyarországi termelővállalatok szolgálatosodását vizsgálta. A cél a szolgálatosodás mértékének és megtérülésének elemzése volt. A vizsgálatokat az IMSS kérdőíves felmérés adatain végezte el, stratégiai, operatív és eredményességi dimenziók mentén. Munkájában nemcsak Nyugat-Európa és Magyarország vállalatainak szolgálatosodásáról ad képet külön-külön, hanem az adatok közvetlen összehasonlításával megbízható összehasonlító elemzést is végzett a két térség között, melyet a tanulmány legfőbb hozzáadott értékének tekint. Nyugat-Európában a szolgáltatások kiemelkednek a versenycélok közül, míg Magyarországon gyenge helyezést érnek el a stratégiai prioritási sorrendben. Működési szinten mindkét helyen átlagosnak mondható a szolgáltatások nyújtását támogató akcióprogramokba fektetett erőfeszítés nagysága. Ez azonban nem feltétlenül mond ellent a stratégiai szintnek Nyugat-Európában, hiszen az is mondható, hogy a szolgáltatásokkal kapcsolatos programok nem zárják ki azt, hogy más területen is fejlesszenek (pl. lean programok). Az eredmények mindkét térségben a szolgálatosodás paradoxonát mutatják. ______ The paper focuses on the servitization of manufacturing companies in Western Europe and Hungary. The author's goal was to analyse the degree and the returns of servitization. The investigations were conducted using data of the IMSS, considering the dimensions of strategy, operations and returns. Besides giving a picture of the servitization of Western European and Hungarian companies, the paper also offers a reliable comparative analysis between the two regions, which can be considered as main value added of the paper. Services are among the most important competitive goals in Western Europe, but have a low ranking in Hungary. Regarding the operational level, programs supporting the offering of services are in the average in both places. This does not necessarily contradict the high strategic level in Western Europe, because we can say that programs related to servitization do not rule out improvement initiatives in other areas (e. g. lean programs). The service paradox is experienced in both territories.

Organizational ambidexterity as a new research paradigm in strategic management

Long-term survival and growth depends on the firm’s ability to exploit its current competencies while exploring fundamentally new ones. Finding the balance between exploration and exploitation is called ambidexterity in the literature. This paper is a comprehensive review of organizational ambidexterity theory. Creating and maintaining the capacity to simultaneously pursue these contradictory activities is an extremely difficult managerial challenge. Although, several aspects are well-researched, especially structural and leadership solutions in large, multinational enterprises, but little is known about: (1) how ambidexterity forms in earlier growth stages? (2) What are the key drivers and elements of organizational context that makes organizations able to become ambidextrous? (3) What is the role of different managerial levels in this formation process? Reviewing the literature, in this article the author would like to introduce the paradox of exploration and exploitation, the tensions and different aspects of ambidexterity, the fields current stage and some important research gaps.

Inmanencia mistica en la obra de Federico Garcia Lorca

The purpose of this dissertation was to analyze the works of Federico García Lorca within the mystic context that dominates their very genesis. The problematic definition of mysticism was explored lest it be confused with traditional mysticism, which implies union with the divine. The historiography of literature speaks of the Mystic Genre, yet it does not address the mystic mode of artistic creation due to its inability to adhere to rational measure. This mode of conception was explored through Lorca's poetic discourse: ‘Lorquian mysticism’ is the result of the poet's cultivation of an innate spiritual potential enhanced by external influences and technical mastery. ^ There is visible influence of Fray Luis of León in Lorca's early Libro de poemas and El maleficio de la mariposa, as well as of Saint John of the Cross in the later Diván del Tamarit, Sonetos de amor and Yerma. However, definitive echoes of poets from the Sufi and other Eastern mystic traditions were also illustrated in these late works. A persistent longing to elide the physical condition, the greatest obstacle of the transcendental quest, is the essence of Lorca's poetic voice. ^ The object of this analysis was Lorca's language, which reaches levels removed from conventional thought. His dazzling metaphors and his particular use of symbols and of paradox compare equitably with those of great mystic poets. Like them, Lorca was faced with the same limitations of language to describe an ineffable experience; he embraced what Octavio Paz describes as ‘sacred language’: there is a linguistic frugality as well as an ambiguity in Lorca's poetic art that result from his realization of supercognitive states. Yet such an interpretation is rejected by the rationalist approach, invoking the age-old debate between faith and reason and signaling the application of psychoanalytical theory. This limited approach was disputed on the basis of reader-response theory. Lorca was truly an eclectic and a modification of the conventional reader's preestablished horizon of expectations is essential in order to seal the gaps in his late works. This innovative perspective placed Lorca within the framework of a new mysticism in the modern world. ^

Democratic purgatory: The failure of democracy in Venezuela

This research provides an understanding of the conditions that presage the failure of consolidated democratic political regimes through constitutional processes. In seeking to answer the question of how democracy might fail through democratic means, this study has revealed a gap in the literature on democratization. Venezuela was selected as a heuristic case study to explain this phenomenon. Heuristic case studies place less emphasis on the more configurative or descriptive elements of the case itself, and instead see the case as a point of departure for the formulations of theoretical propositions. While in-case hypotheses are possible, heuristic case studies make it an explicit research plan to tease out mechanisms that exist in a particular case study that might survive in other situations. ^ This study demonstrates that the elements in society that act as direct participants in the establishment of a democratic political system are able to maintain their position in the new order largely through an expansion of their ability to meet popular demands through clientelistic arrangements. While these corporatist groups may serve to facilitate social mobilization during the establishment of democratic regimes, they do so only in so far as they can maintain social control of in-group membership without fully providing for representative democracy. Once these democratic institutions are consolidated as key parts of the democratic structure, these corporatist arrangements provide for a type of unstable democratic purgatory: democracy is not fully representative, yet it is not completely unresponsive to the demands of the electorate. ^ The condition of democratic purgatory produces a paradox whereby democracy can be undemocratic under certain conditions. The stability of these regimes allows for democratic consolidation, despite the undemocratic basis of legitimacy. While these regimes can undergo consolidation, ultimately, this condition is unstable: either these regimes must establish an endogenous basis of political legitimacy (one that is not simply a function of the corporatist/clientelistic political structure), or the democracy will suffer a qualitative decline that may result in a democratic breakdown. Furthermore, this study finds that the viability of any type of democratic regime rests upon its adaptability to ensure adequate representativeness. ^

Essays on international lending and increasing returns to scale

Standard economic theory suggests that capital should flow from rich countries to poor countries. However, capital has predominantly flowed to rich countries. The three essays in this dissertation attempt to explain this phenomenon. The first two essays suggest theoretical explanations for why capital has not flowed to the poor countries. The third essay empirically tests the theoretical explanations.^ The first essay examines the effects of increasing returns to scale on international lending and borrowing with moral hazard. Introducing increasing returns in a two-country general equilibrium model yields possible multiple equilibria and helps explain the possibility of capital flows from a poor to a rich country. I find that a borrowing country may need to borrow sufficient amounts internationally to reach a minimum investment threshold in order to invest domestically.^ The second essay examines how a poor country may invest in sectors with low productivity because of sovereign risk, and how collateral differences across sectors may exacerbate the problem. I model sovereign borrowing with a two-sector economy: one sector with increasing returns to scale (IRS) and one sector with diminishing returns to scale (DRS). Countries with incomes below a threshold will only invest in the DRS sector, and countries with incomes above a threshold will invest mostly in the IRS sector. The results help explain the existence of a bimodal world income distribution.^ The third essay empirically tests the explanations for why capital has not flowed from the rich to the poor countries, with a focus on institutions and initial capital. I find that institutional variables are a very important factor, but in contrast to other studies, I show that institutions do not account for the Lucas Paradox. Evidence of increasing returns still exists, even when controlling for institutions and other variables. In addition, I find that the determinants of capital flows may depend on whether a country is rich or poor.^

An experimental and theoretical analysis of nitric oxide availability in the microcirculation

Nitric Oxide (NO) is produced in the vascular endothelium where it then diffuses to the adjacent smooth muscle cells (SMC) activating agents known to regulate vascular tone. The close proximity of the site of NO production to the red blood cells (RBC) and its known fast consumption by hemoglobin, suggests that the blood will scavenge most of the NO produced. Therefore, it is unclear how NO is able to play its role in accomplishing vasodilation. Investigation of NO production and consumption rates will allow insight into this paradox. DAF-FM is a sensitive NO fluorescence probe widely used for qualitative assessment of cellular NO production. With the aid of a mathematical model of NO/DAF-FM reaction kinetics, experimental studies were conducted to calibrate the fluorescence signal showing that the slope of fluorescent intensity is proportional to [NO]2 and exhibits a saturation dependence on [DAF-FM]. In addition, experimental data exhibited a Km dependence on [NO]. This finding was incorporated into the model elucidating NO 2 as the possible activating agent of DAF-FM. A calibration procedure was formed and applied to agonist stimulated cells, providing an estimated NO release rate of 0.418 ± 0.18 pmol/cm2s. To assess NO consumption by RBCs, measurements of the rate of NO consumption in a gas stream flowing on top of an RBC solution of specified Hematocrit (Hct) was performed. The consumption rate constant (kbl)in porcine RBCs at 25°C and 45% Hct was estimated to be 3500 + 700 s-1. kbl is highly dependent on Hct and can reach up to 9900 + 4000 s-1 for 60% Hct. The nonlinear dependence of kbl on Hct suggests a predominant role for extracellular diffusion in limiting NO uptake. Further simulations showed a linear relationship between varying NO production rates and NO availability in the SMCs utilizing the estimated NO consumption rate. The corresponding SMC [NO] level for the average NO production rate estimated was approximately 15.1 nM. With the aid of experimental and theoretical methods we were able to examine the NO paradox and exhibit that endothelial derived NO is able to escape scavenging by RBCs to diffuse to the SMCs.

Electoral rules and elite recruitment: A comparative analysis of the Bundestag and the U.S. House of Representatives

In this research, I analyze the effects of candidate nomination rules and campaign financing rules on elite recruitment into the national legislatures of Germany and the United States. This dissertation is both theory-driven and constitutes exploratory research, too. While the effects of electoral rules are frequently studied in political science, the emphasis is thereby on electoral rules that are set post-election. My focus, in contrast, is on electoral rules that have an effect prior to the election. Furthermore, my dissertation is comparative by design.^ The research question is twofold. Do electoral rules have an effect on elite recruitment, and does it matter? To answer these question, I create a large-N original data set, in which I code the behavior and recruitment paths and patterns of members of the American House of Representatives and the German Bundestag. Furthermore, I include interviews with members of the said two national legislatures. Both the statistical analyses and the interviews provide affirmative evidence for my working hypothesis that differences in electoral rules lead to a different type of elite recruitment. To that end, I use the active-politician concept, through which I dichotomously distinguish the economic behavior of politicians.^ Thanks to the exploratory nature of my research, I also discover the phenomenon of differential valence of local and state political office for entrance into national office in comparative perspective. By statistically identifying this hitherto unknown paradox, as well as evidencing the effects of electoral rules, I show that besides ideology and culture, institutional rules are key in shaping the ruling elite. The way institutional rules are set up, in particular electoral rules, does not only affect how the electorate will vote and how seats will be distributed, but it will also affect what type of people will end up in elected office.^

Essays on Competition in the Pharmaceutical Industry

Chapter 1: Patents and Entry Competition in the Pharmaceutical Industry: The Role of Marketing Exclusivity Effective patent length for innovation drugs is severely curtailed because of extensive efficacy and safety tests required for FDA approval, raising concern over adequacy of incentives for new drug development. The Hatch-Waxman Act extends patent length for new drugs by five years, but also promotes generic entry by simplifying approval procedures and granting 180-day marketing exclusivity to a first generic entrant before the patent expires. In this paper we present a dynamic model to examine the effect of marketing exclusivity. We find that marketing exclusivity may be redundant and its removal may increase generic firms' profits and social welfare. Chapter 2: Why Authorized Generics?: Theoretical and Empirical Investigations Facing generic competition, the brand-name companies some-times launch generic versions themselves called authorized generics. This practice is puzzling. If it is cannibalization, it cannot be profitable. If it is divisionalization, it should be practiced always instead of sometimes. I explain this phenomenon in terms of switching costs in a model in which the incumbent first develops a customer base to ready itself against generic competition later. I show that only sufficiently low switching costs or large market size justifies launch of AGs. I then use prescription drug data to test those results and find support. Chapter 3: The Merger Paradox and R&D Oligopoly theory says that merger is unprofitable, unless a majority of firms in industry merge. Here, we introduce R&D opportunities to resolve this so-called merger paradox. We have three results. First, when there is one R&D firm, that firm can profitably merge with any number of non-R&D firms. Second, with multiple R&D firms and multiple non-R&D firms, all R&D firms can profitably merge. Third, with two R&D firms and two non-R&D firms, each R&D firms prefer to merge with a non-R&D firm. With three or more than non-R&D firms, however, the R&D firms prefer to merge with each other.