Traffic-related fine and ultrafine particle exposures of professional drivers and illness : An opportunity to better link exposure science and epidemiology to address an occupational hazard?

Exposures to traffic-related air pollution (TRAP) can be particularly high in transport microenvironments (i.e. in and around vehicles) despite the short durations typically spent there. There is a mounting body of evidence that suggests that this is especially true for fine (b2.5 μm) and ultrafine (b100 nm, UF) particles. Professional drivers, who spend extended periods of time in transport microenvironments due to their job, may incur exposures markedly higher than already elevated non-occupational exposures. Numerous epidemiological studies have shown a raised incidence of adverse health outcomes among professional drivers, and exposure to TRAP has been suggested as one of the possible causal factors. Despite this, data describing the range and determinants of occupational exposures to fine and UF particles are largely conspicuous in their absence. Such information could strengthen attempts to define the aetiology of professional drivers' illnesses as it relates to traffic combustion-derived particles. In this article, we suggest that the drivers' occupational fine and UF particle exposures are an exemplar case where opportunities exist to better link exposure science and epidemiology in addressing questions of causality. The nature of the hazard is first introduced, followed by an overview of the health effects attributable to exposures typical of transport microenvironments. Basic determinants of exposure and reduction strategies are also described, and finally the state of knowledge is briefly summarised along with an outline of the main unanswered questions in the topic area.

Driver sleepiness self-regulation : physiological and subjective evidence

Introduction: Sleepiness contributes to a substantial proportion of fatal and severe road crashes. Efforts to reduce the incidence of sleep-related crashes have largely focussed on driver education to promote self-regulation of driving behaviour. However, effective self-regulation requires accurate self-perception of sleepiness. The aim of this study was to assess capacity to accurately identify sleepiness, and self-regulate driving cessation, during a validated driving simulator task. Methods: Participants comprised 26 young adult drivers (20-28 years) who had open licenses. No other exclusion criteria where used. Participants were partially sleep deprived (05:00 wake up) and completed a laboratory-based hazard perception driving simulation, counterbalanced to either at mid-morning or mid-afternoon. Established physiological measures (i.e., EEG, EOG) and subjective measures (Karolinska Sleepiness Scale), previously found sensitive to changes in sleepiness levels, were utilised. Participants were instructed to ‘drive’ on the simulator until they believed that sleepiness had impaired their ability to drive safely. They were then offered a nap opportunity. Results: The mean duration of the drive before cessation was 36.1 minutes (±17.7 minutes). Subjective sleepiness increased significantly from the beginning (KSS=6.6±0.7) to the end (KSS=8.2±0.5) of the driving period. No significant differences were found for EEG spectral power measures of sleepiness (i.e., theta or alpha spectral power) from the start of the driving task to the point of cessation of driving. During the nap opportunity, 88% of the participants (23/26) were able to reach sleep onset with an average latency of 9.9 minutes (±7.5 minutes). The average nap duration was 15.1 minutes (±8.1 minutes). Sleep architecture during the nap was predominately comprised of Stages I and II (combined 92%). Discussion: Participants reported high levels of sleepiness during daytime driving after very moderate sleep restriction. They were able to report increasing sleepiness during the test period despite no observed change in standard physiological indices of sleepiness. This increased subjective sleepiness had behavioural validity as the participants had high ‘napability’ at the point of driving cessation, with most achieving some degree of subsequent sleep. This study suggests that the nature of a safety instruction (i.e. how to view sleepiness) can be a determinant of driver behaviour.

Media classification : Content regulation in an age of convergent media

This article outlines the key recommendations of the Australian Law Reform Commission’s review of the National Classification Scheme, as outlined in its report Classification – Content Regulation and Convergent Media (ALRC, 2012). It identifies key contextual factors that underpin the need for reform of media classification laws and policies, including the fragmentation of regulatory responsibilities and the convergence of media platforms, content and services, as well as discussing the ALRC’s approach to law reform.

Characterisation of multi wall carbon nanotube–polymer composites for strain sensing applications

Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have excellent electrical, mechanical and electromechanical properties. When CNTs are incorporated into polymers, electrically conductive composites with high electrical conductivity at very low CNT content (often below 1% wt CNT) result. Due to the change in electrical properties under mechanical load, carbon nanotube/polymer composites have attracted significant research interest especially due to their potential for application in in-situ monitoring of stress distribution and active control of strain sensing in composite structures or as strain sensors. To sucessfully develop novel devices for such applications, some of the major challenges that need to be overcome include; in-depth understanding of structure-electrical conductivity relationships, response of the composites under changing environmental conditions and piezoresistivity of different types of carbon nanotube/polymer sensing devices. In this thesis, direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC) conductivity of CNT-epoxy composites was investigated. Details of microstructure obtained by scanning electron microscopy were used to link observed electrical properties with structure using equivalent circuit modeling. The role of polymer coatings on macro and micro level electrical conductivity was investigated using atomic force microscopy. Thermal analysis and Raman spectroscopy were used to evaluate the heat flow and deformation of carbon nanotubes embedded in the epoxy, respectively, and related to temperature induced resistivity changes. A comparative assessment of piezoresistivity was conducted using randomly mixed carbon nanotube/epoxy composites, and new concept epoxy- and polyurethane-coated carbon nanotube films. The results indicate that equivalent circuit modelling is a reliable technique for estimating values of the resistance and capacitive components in linear, low aspect ratio-epoxy composites. Using this approach, the dominant role of tunneling resistance in determining the electrical conductivity was confirmed, a result further verified using conductive-atomic force microscopy analysis. Randomly mixed CNT-epoxy composites were found to be highly sensitive to mechanical strain and temperature variation compared to polymer-coated CNT films. In the vicinity of the glass transition temperature, the CNT-epoxy composites exhibited pronounced resistivity peaks. Thermal and Raman spectroscopy analyses indicated that this phenomenon can be attributed to physical aging of the epoxy matrix phase and structural rearrangement of the conductive network induced by matrix expansion. The resistivity of polymercoated CNT composites was mainly dominated by the intrinsic resistivity of CNTs and the CNT junctions, and their linear, weakly temperature sensitive response can be described by a modified Luttinger liquid model. Piezoresistivity of the polymer coated sensors was dominated by break up of the conducting carbon nanotube network and the consequent degradation of nanotube-nanotube contacts while that of the randomly mixed CNT-epoxy composites was determined by tunnelling resistance between neighbouring CNTs. This thesis has demonstrated that it is possible to use microstructure information to develop equivalent circuit models that are capable of representing the electrical conductivity of CNT/epoxy composites accurately. New designs of carbon nanotube based sensing devices, utilising carbon nanotube films as the key functional element, can be used to overcome the high temperature sensitivity of randomly mixed CNT/polymer composites without compromising on desired high strain sensitivity. This concept can be extended to develop large area intelligent CNT based coatings and targeted weak-point specific strain sensors for use in structural health monitoring.

Regulation of land access for resource development: A coal seam gas case study from Queensland

A number of regulatory statutes provide for agreements with landowners which are given extended effect, that is, are binding upon the landowner’s successors (‘statutory agreements’). Several Queensland statutes require a project proponent to enter into a statutory agreement with a landowner before a resource development activity can be carried out on private land or by accessing private land. Provisions of Queensland’s Petroleum and Gas (Production and Safety) Act 2004 make certain types of statutory agreements binding upon successors and assigns of the landowner, but do not clearly prescribe the nature and contents of an agreement, nor require that the agreement be recorded on the land title or petroleum register. If statutory agreements are to be used for such purposes, their purpose and content should be more clearly defined by statute and they should be recorded on a searchable register.

Analyzing the literature for the link between the conservative Islamic culture of Saudi Arabia and the design of sustainable housing

Saudi Arabia experiences housing shortage for mid and low-income families, which is caused by rapid population growth. This condition is worsened by the fact that the current housing supply has problems in meeting both sustainable requirements and cultural needs of those families. This paper aims to investigate the link between the unique conservative Saudi culture and the design of sustainable housing, while keeping the housing cost affordable for mid and low-income families. The paper is based on a review of literatures on the issues of the Islamic culture and how can they be integrated into the design process of a Saudi house. Findings from literature reveiw suggest several design requirements for accommodating the conservative Saudi Culture in low cost sustainable houses. Such requirements include the implementation of proper usage of windows, and house orientation with a courtyard inside rather than facing the main street will provide natural ventilation while maintaining privacy. The main contribution to the body of knowledge is that this is a new approach to sustainable housing in Saudi Arabia considering not only energy use and architectural design issues but also socio-cultural issues as an essential part of sustainability.

Why do policy decision-makers opt for command and control environmental regulation? An economic analysis with special reference to Sri Lanka

This chapter examines why policy decision-makers opt for command and control environmental regulation despite the availability of a plethora of market-based instruments which are more efficient and cost-effective. Interestingly, Sri Lanka has adopted a wholly command and control system, during both the pre and post liberalisation economic policies. This chapter first examines the merits and demerits of command and control and market-based approaches and then looks at Sri Lanka’s extensive environmental regulatory framework. The chapter then examines the likely reasons as to why the country has gone down the path of inflexible regulatory measures and has become entrenched in them. The various hypotheses are discussed and empirical evidence is provided. The chapter also discusses the consequences of an environmentally slack economy and policy implications stemming from adopting a wholly regulatory approach. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the main results.

In vitro physical stimulation of tissue-engineered and native cartilage

Because of the limited availability of donor cartilage for resurfacing defects in articular surfaces, there is tremendous interest in the in vitro bioengineering of cartilage replacements for clinical applications. However, attaining mechanical properties in engineered cartilaginous constructs that approach those of native cartilage has not been previously achieved when constructs are cultured under free-swelling conditions. One approach toward stimulating the development of constructs that are mechanically more robust is to expose them to physical environments that are similar, in certain ways, to those encountered by native cartilage. This is a strategy motivated by observations in numerous short-term experiments that certain mechanical signals are potent stimulators of cartilage metabolism. On the other hand, excess mechanical loading can have a deleterious effect on cartilage. Culture conditions that include a physical stimulation component are made possible by the use of specialized bioreactors. This chapter addresses some of the issues involved in using bioreactors as integral components of cartilage tissue engineering and in studying the physical regulation of cartilage. We first consider the generation of cartilaginous constructs in vitro. Next we describe the rationale and design of bioreactors that can impart either mechanical deformation or fluid-induced mechanical signals.

Lysosomal secretion of Flightless I upon injury has the potential to alter inflammation

Intracellular Flightless I (Flii), a gelsolin family member, has been found to have roles modulating actin regulation, transcriptional regulation and inflammation. In vivo Flii can regulate wound healing responses. We have recently shown that a pool of Flii is secreted by fibroblasts and macrophages, cells typically found in wounds, and its secretion can be upregulated upon wounding. We show that secreted Flii can bind to the bacterial cell wall component lipopolysaccharide and has the potential to regulate inflammation. We now show that secreted Flii is present in both acute and chronic wound fluid.

Self-regulation and mastery motivation in individuals with developmental disabilities : barriers, supports, and strategies

The development of the capacity for self-regulation represents an important achievement of childhood and is associated with social, behavioral, and academic competence (Bronson, 2001; Cleary & Zimmerman, 2004). Self-regulation evolves as individuals mature, with its final form integrating emotional, cognitive, and behavioral elements working together to achieve self-selected goals. This evolution is closely intertwined with the innate press to master the environment, labeled mastery motivation (Morgan, Harmon, & Maslin-Cole, 1990), as competence is the aim that underpins mastery motivation.

Organotypic culture of normal, dysplastic and squamous cell carcinoma-derived oral cell lines reveals loss of spatial regulation of CD44 and p75(NTR) in malignancy

Oral squamous cell carcinomas (OSCC) often arise from dysplastic lesions. The role of cancer stem cells in tumour initiation is widely accepted, yet the potential existence of pre-cancerous stem cells in dysplastic tissue has received little attention. Cell lines from oral diseases ranging in severity from dysplasia to malignancy provide opportunity to investigate the involvement of stem cells in malignant progression from dysplasia. Stem cells are functionally defined by their ability to generate hierarchical tissue structures in consortium with spatial regulation. Organotypic cultures readily display tissue hierarchy in vitro; hence, in this study, we compared hierarchical expression of stem cell-associated markers in dermis-based organotypic cultures of oral epithelial cells from normal tissue (OKF6-TERT2), mild dysplasia (DOK), severe dysplasia (POE-9n) and OSCC (PE/CA P J15). Expression of CD44, p75NTR, CD24 and ALDH was studied in monolayers by flow cytometry and in organotypic cultures by immunohistochemistry. Spatial regulation of CD44 and p75NTR was evident for organotypic cultures of normal (OKF6-TERT2) and dysplasia (DOK and POE-9n) but was lacking for OSCC (PE/CA PJ15)-derived cells. Spatial regulation of CD24 was not evident. All monolayer cultures exhibited CD44, p75NTR, CD24 antigens and ALDH activity (ALDEFLUOR® assay), with a trend towards loss of population heterogeneity that mirrored disease severity. In monolayer, increased FOXA1 and decreased FOXA2 expression correlated with disease severity, but OCT3/4, Sox2 and NANOG did not. We conclude that dermis-based organotypic cultures give opportunity to investigate the mechanisms that underlie loss of spatial regulation of stem cell markers seen with OSCC-derived cells.

Classification—Content Regulation and Convergent Media

On 24 March 2011, Attorney-General Robert McClelland referred the National Classification Scheme to the ALRC and asked it to conduct widespread public consultation across the community and industry. The review considered issues including: existing Commonwealth, State and Territory classification laws the current classification categories contained in the Classification Act, Code and Guidelines the rapid pace of technological change the need to improve classification information available to the community the effect of media on children and the desirability of a strong content and distribution industry in Australia. During the inquiry, the ALRC conducted face-to-face consultations with stakeholders, hosted two online discussion forums, and commissioned pilot community and reference group forums into community attitudes to higher level media content. The ALRC published two consultation documents—an Issues Paper and a Discussion Paper—and invited submissions from the public. The Final Report was tabled in Parliament on 1 March 2012. Recommendations: The report makes 57 recommendations for reform. The net effect of the recommendations would be the establishment of a new National Classification Scheme that: applies consistent rules to content that are sufficiently flexible to be adaptive to technological change; places a regulatory focus on restricting access to adult content, helping to promote cyber-safety and protect children from inappropriate content across media platforms; retains the Classification Board as an independent classification decision maker with an essential role in setting benchmarks; promotes industry co-regulation, encouraging greater industry content classification, with government regulation more directly focused on content of higher community concern; provides for pragmatic regulatory oversight, to meet community expectations and safeguard community standards; reduces the overall regulatory burden on media content industries while ensuring that content obligations are focused on what Australians most expect to be classified; and harmonises classification laws across Australia, for the benefit of consumers and content providers.

Advanced battery storage control for an autonomous microgrid

A new control method for battery storage to maintain acceptable voltage profile in autonomous microgrids is proposed in this article. The proposed battery control ensures that the bus voltages in the microgrid are maintained during disturbances such as load change, loss of micro-sources, or distributed generations hitting power limit. Unlike the conventional storage control based on local measurements, the proposed method is based on an advanced control technique, where the reference power is determined based on the voltage drop profile at the battery bus. An artificial neural network based controller is used to determine the reference power needed for the battery to hold the microgrid voltage within regulation limits. The pattern of drop in the local bus voltage during power imbalance is used to train the controller off-line. During normal operation, the battery floats with the local bus voltage without any power injection. The battery is charged or discharged during the transients with a high gain feedback loop. Depending on the rate of voltage fall, it is switched to power control mode to inject the reference power determined by the proposed controller. After a defined time period, the battery power injection is reduced to zero using slow reverse-droop characteristics, ensuring a slow rate of increase in power demand from the other distributed generations. The proposed control method is simulated for various operating conditions in a microgrid with both inertial and converter interfaced sources. The proposed battery control provides a quick load pick up and smooth load sharing with the other micro-sources in a disturbance. With various disturbances, maximum voltage drop over 8% with conventional energy storage is reduced within 2.5% with the proposed control method.