Regularity and counterfactuality in Hume's treatment of causation

Of the several theories of causation current in our days, Hume is said to be the inspiration of two of the most influential and accepted: the regularity theory, first clearly formulated by Thomas Brown in 1822, and the counterfactual theory, proposed by David Lewis in 1973. After a brief outline of the comparative merits and difficulties of these two views, I proceed to examine whether Hume's own treatment of causation actually corresponds to any of them. I will show that his first definition of cause, coupled with his rules by which to judge about causes and effects, contains elements that, properly developed, allow us to address successfully some traditional difficulties of the regularity view of causation, without resorting to the conceptual resources employed in the counterfactual approach. Therefore, we can properly classify Hume as an advocate of the conception of causation as regularity, noting however that his primary goal in his research and definitions of the concept was to provide not so much an analysis of causation as such, but of causation as we apprehend it, in the form of our ability to make causal inferences and refine them to reach the more sophisticated causal reasonings that are required in the theoretical and practical issues of life.

Understanding Neolithic Southern Levant: case studies of archaeological semiosis in action

I undersökningen tillämpas Charles Sanders Peirces semiotik för en kritisk granskning av arkeologiska tolkningsprocesser. Enligt Peirce bygger all betydelsegivning på tecken, som kan vara teckningar, föremål, ord, byggkonstruktioner eller egentligen vad som helst. Ett tecken är tredimensionellt: ”objekt”, ”tecken” och ”tolkning”. I sina tidiga skrifter definierar han tre grundtyper för tecknet, Index, Icon och Symbol. De grundläggande definitionerna i Peirces semiotik blir till ett slags lins. När den placeras på skrifter av en arkeolog som uttolkar tecken, framträder deras inre uppbyggnad, motiveringar och logiska konsekvens klart. Att beakta är, att denna bok är lika lite avsedd att utgöra en systematisk klarläggning av den arkeologiska semiotiken, som en omfattande beskrivning av symboliken i det neolitiska Mellanöstern. Analysen är deskriptiv och inte avsedd att utvärdera tolkningarnas riktighet, utan enbart att klarlägga hur arkeologen kommit fram till dessa. Som objekt har valts neolitiska södra Levanten, där viktiga fynd gällande denna i mänsklighetens kulturhistoria så betydelsefulla skede har gjorts. Förhistorien är intressant med tanke på arkeologisk semiosis, eftersom uttolkaren av en symbol inte kan stöda sig på textfynd, utan måste på annat sätt upptäcka vad ett föremål eller en byggnad betytt för sin upphovsman. Att upptäcka en trovärdig betydelse är ofta en mycket svår och understundom rentav omöjlig uppgift. Efter att förhållandet mellan semiotik och arkeologi dryftats analyseras i boken John Garstangs och Kathleen M. Kenyons grundläggande tolkningar i Jeriko, Denise-Schmandt Besserats jämförande analyser för uttolkningen av \'Ain Ghazalis kranium, Michele A. Millers kontextuella analys i Jarmuk samt David Lewis-Williams’ starkt strukturalistiska analys av betydelsen av fynden i \'Ain Ghazal. Peirces semiotik har använts som stöd för arkeologin i mycket mindre utsträckning än F. de Saussures lingvistiska ja strukturalistiska semiotik. I Mellanöstern har man hittills inte alls gjort det. Ingen av de forskare som behandlas i boken hänvisar själv till semiotik eller tecken. Logiken i uttolkningen av dessa undersökningar är mycket invecklad, och de av Peirce gestaltade processerna för betydelsegivning visar sig härvidlag utgöra en ytterst klargörande kritisk apparat.

Universales estructurales

The work presents the concept of a structural universal and the criticisms that have been leveled against it. A structural universal is a property had by an individual due to the nature of its proper parts and due to the relations obtaining between those parts. Mellor has argued that there is no reason to accept such universal in addition to the basic universals that compose them. David Lewis has argued -on the other hand- that it has not been satisfactorily explained how universals are composed by other universals. The composition by which a structural universal is given cannot be a set-theoretical construction or a mereological sum. Several proposals to explain the nature of structural universals are discussed. Finally it is argued that a structural universal should be understood as a complexion of higher-order universals.

A tour through Sweden, Swedish-Lapland, Finland and Denmark. In a series of letters, illustrated with engravings : by Matthew Consett, esq.

P. 143-158 are misnumbered 142-157.

DISAGREEING OVER EVALUATIVES: PREFERENCE, NORMATIVE AND MORAL DISCOURSE

Abstract Why would we argue about taste, norms or morality when we know that these topics are relative to taste preferences, systems of norms or values to which we are committed? Yet, disagreements over these topics are common in our evaluative discourses. I will claim that the motives to discuss rely on our attitudes towards the standard held by the speakers in each domain of discourse, relating different attitudes to different motives -mainly, conviction and correction. These notions of attitudes and motives will allow me to claim that different domains of evaluative discourse have a different distribution of disagreements driven by them.

Comparação de diferentes metodologias para estimativa de curvas intensidade-duração-freqüência para Pelotas - RS

Nos projetos agrícolas de obras hidráulicas, onde não se dispõe de dados observados de vazão, é necessário explorar ao máximo as informações relativas às curvas Intensidade-Duração-Freqüência (IDF). Diante disso, é preciso obter maneira de desenvolver metodologias de estimativas de curvas IDF, em locais que possuam pouco ou nenhum dado pluviográfico. O objetivo do trabalho foi comparar as metodologias de desagregação de precipitações diárias para verificar o ganho de informação em termos de curvas IDF, comparadas àquela obtida a partir de dados observados (histórica). Os métodos utilizados foram: (a) Método das Relações (CETESB, 1979); (b) BELTRAME et al. (1991); (c) ROBAINA & PEITER (1992); (d) Modelo Bartlett-Lewis do Pulso Retangular Modificado (DAMÉ, 2001). Utilizou-se de série de dados de precipitação diária de Pelotas - RS, referente ao período de 1982-1998. Para estimar as curvas IDF, a partir dos registros históricos, foram estabelecidas as durações de 15; 30; 60; 360; 720 e 1.440 minutos, e os períodos de retorno de 2; 5 e 10 anos. Os valores de intensidades máximas foram comparados entre si, pelo teste "t" de Student, para os coeficientes linear e angular, e pelo Erro Relativo Médio Quadrático. O método que melhor representou as intensidades máximas de precipitação, nos períodos de retorno de 2 e 10 anos, foi o Método das Relações (CETESB, 1979).

Avaliação do fluxo arterial mesentérico em humanos durante o exercício

O aumento da atividade simpática durante o exercício dinâmico progressivo associa-se à resposta da concentração de lactato sangüíneo. Com o objetivo de testar a hipótese de que a diminuição do fluxo da artéria mesentérica superior também tenha relação com a lactiacidemia, oito indivíduos saudáveis (idade de 21-26 anos) foram submetidos a exercício com incremento progressivo de cargas ajustadas para os limiares de lactato, sendo o fluxo da artéria mesentérica superior medido pelo EcoDoppler. O fluxo na artéria mesentérica superior, calculado por medidas planimétricas das velocidades e medidas da área de secção, foi avaliado em repouso, após carga de 30 Watts, no primeiro e segundo limiares de lactato e esforço máximo, O fluxo (média ± EP) no repouso foi de 1.034 ± 112 ml/min, de 1.002 ± 124 na carga de 30 Watts, de 869 ± 122 ml/min no primeiro limiar de lactato, de 866 ± 127 ml/min no segundo limiar de lactato e de 689 ± 104 ml/min logo após o esforço máximo, Ocorreu uma redução linear, sendo a redução média na carga máxima de 34% do fluxo de repouso, não havendo correlação com os limiares de lactato. Portanto, a redução do fluxo da artéria mesentérica superior apresenta uma resposta linear ao exercício progressivo.

Prediction of transients and control reactions in a transonic wind tunnel

This work describes a lumped parameter mathematical model for the prediction of transients in an aerodynamic circuit of a transonic wind tunnel. Control actions to properly handle those perturbations are also assessed. The tunnel circuit technology is up to date and incorporates a novel feature: high-enthalpy air injection to extend the tunnel’s Reynolds number capability. The model solves the equations of continuity, energy and momentum and defines density, internal energy and mass flow as the basic parameters in the aerodynamic study as well as Mach number, stagnation pressure and stagnation temperature, all referred to test section conditions, as the main control variables. The tunnel circuit response to control actions and the stability of the flow are numerically investigated. Initially, for validation purposes, the code was applied to the AWT ("Altitude Wind Tunnel" of NASA-Lewis). In the sequel, the Brazilian transonic wind tunnel was investigated, with all the main control systems modeled, including injection.

[Isabellan resitatiivi ja aaria Pensa alla patria]

Äänitetty radiosta.

Issuant views of hell in contemporary Anglo-American theology

This problem of hell is a specific form of the problem of evil that can be expressed in terms of a set of putatively incompatible statements: 1. An omnipotent God could create a world in which all moral agents freely choose life with God. 2. An omnibenevolent God would not create a world with the foreknowledge that some (perhaps a significant proportion) of God’s creatures would end up in hell. 3. An omniscient God would know which people will end up in hell. 4. Some people will end up forever in hell. Since the late twentieth century, a number of British and North American philosophical theologians, inspired by C.S. Lewis, have developed a new approach to answering the problem of hell. Very little work has been done to systematize this category of perspectives on the duration, quality, purpose and finality of hell. Indeed, there is no consensus among scholars as to what such an approach should be called. In this work, however, I call this perspective issuantism. Starting from the works of a wide range of issuantist scholars, I distill what I believe to be the essence of issuantist perspectives on hell: hell is a state that does not result in universal salvation and is characterized by the insistance that both heaven and hell must issue from the love of God, an affirmation of libertarian human freedom and a rejection of retributive interpretations of hell. These sine qua non characteristics form what I have labeled basic issuantism. I proceed to show that basic issuantism by itself does not provide an adequate answer to the problem of hell. The issuantist scholars themselves, however, recognize this weakness and add a wide range of possible supplements to their basic issuantism. Some of these supplemented versions of issuantism succeed in presenting reasonable answers to the problem of hell. One of the key reasons for the development of issuantist views of hell is a perceived failure on the part of conditionalists, universalists and defenders of hell as eternal conscious torment to give adequate answers to the problem of hell. It is my conclusion, however, that with the addition of some of the same supplements, versions of conditionalism and hell as eternal conscious torment can be advanced that succeed just as well in presenting answers to the problem of hell as those advanced by issuantists, thus rendering some of the issuantist critique of non-issuantist perspectives on hell unfounded.

Reusing repository technology for Cultural Heritage and Special Collections

Presentation at Open Repositories 2014, Helsinki, Finland, June 9-13, 2014

Methyl and ethyl chloride synthesis in microreactors

Methyl chloride is an important chemical intermediate with a variety of applications. It is produced today in large units and shipped to the endusers. Most of the derived products are harmless, as silicones, butyl rubber and methyl cellulose. However, methyl chloride is highly toxic and flammable. On-site production in the required quantities is desirable to reduce the risks involved in transportation and storage. Ethyl chloride is a smaller-scale chemical intermediate that is mainly used in the production of cellulose derivatives. Thus, the combination of onsite production of methyl and ethyl chloride is attractive for the cellulose processing industry, e.g. current and future biorefineries. Both alkyl chlorides can be produced by hydrochlorination of the corresponding alcohol, ethanol or methanol. Microreactors are attractive for the on-site production as the reactions are very fast and involve toxic chemicals. In microreactors, the diffusion limitations can be suppressed and the process safety can be improved. The modular setup of microreactors is flexible to adjust the production capacity as needed. Although methyl and ethyl chloride are important chemical intermediates, the literature available on potential catalysts and reaction kinetics is limited. Thus the thesis includes an extensive catalyst screening and characterization, along with kinetic studies and engineering the hydrochlorination process in microreactors. A range of zeolite and alumina based catalysts, neat and impregnated with ZnCl2, were screened for the methanol hydrochlorination. The influence of zinc loading, support, zinc precursor and pH was investigated. The catalysts were characterized with FTIR, TEM, XPS, nitrogen physisorption, XRD and EDX to identify the relationship between the catalyst characteristics and the activity and selectivity in the methyl chloride synthesis. The acidic properties of the catalyst were strongly influenced upon the ZnCl2 modification. In both cases, alumina and zeolite supports, zinc reacted to a certain amount with specific surface sites, which resulted in a decrease of strong and medium Brønsted and Lewis acid sites and the formation of zinc-based weak Lewis acid sites. The latter are highly active and selective in methanol hydrochlorination. Along with the molecular zinc sites, bulk zinc species are present on the support material. Zinc modified zeolite catalysts exhibited the highest activity also at low temperatures (ca 200 °C), however, showing deactivation with time-onstream. Zn/H-ZSM-5 zeolite catalysts had a higher stability than ZnCl2 modified H-Beta and they could be regenerated by burning the coke in air at 400 °C. Neat alumina and zinc modified alumina catalysts were active and selective at 300 °C and higher temperatures. However, zeolite catalysts can be suitable for methyl chloride synthesis at lower temperatures, i.e. 200 °C. Neat γ-alumina was found to be the most stable catalyst when coated in a microreactor channel and it was thus used as the catalyst for systematic kinetic studies in the microreactor. A binder-free and reproducible catalyst coating technique was developed. The uniformity, thickness and stability of the coatings were extensively characterized by SEM, confocal microscopy and EDX analysis. A stable coating could be obtained by thermally pretreating the microreactor platelets and ball milling the alumina to obtain a small particle size. Slurry aging and slow drying improved the coating uniformity. Methyl chloride synthesis from methanol and hydrochloric acid was performed in an alumina-coated microreactor. Conversions from 4% to 83% were achieved in the investigated temperature range of 280-340 °C. This demonstrated that the reaction is fast enough to be successfully performed in a microreactor system. The performance of the microreactor was compared with a tubular fixed bed reactor. The results obtained with both reactors were comparable, but the microreactor allows a rapid catalytic screening with low consumption of chemicals. As a complete conversion of methanol could not be reached in a single microreactor, a second microreactor was coupled in series. A maximum conversion of 97.6 % and a selectivity of 98.8 % were reached at 340°C, which is close to the calculated values at a thermodynamic equilibrium. A kinetic model based on kinetic experiments and thermodynamic calculations was developed. The model was based on a Langmuir Hinshelwood-type mechanism and a plug flow model for the microreactor. The influence of the reactant adsorption on the catalyst surface was investigated by performing transient experiments and comparing different kinetic models. The obtained activation energy for methyl chloride was ca. two fold higher than the previously published, indicating diffusion limitations in the previous studies. A detailed modeling of the diffusion in the porous catalyst layer revealed that severe diffusion limitations occur starting from catalyst coating thicknesses of 50 μm. At a catalyst coating thickness of ca 15 μm as in the microreactor, the conditions of intrinsic kinetics prevail. Ethanol hydrochlorination was performed successfully in the microreactor system. The reaction temperature was 240-340°C. An almost complete conversion of ethanol was achieved at 340°C. The product distribution was broader than for methanol hydrochlorination. Ethylene, diethyl ether and acetaldehyde were detected as by-products, ethylene being the most dominant by-product. A kinetic model including a thorough thermodynamic analysis was developed and the influence of adsorbed HCl on the reaction rate of ethanol dehydration reactions was demonstrated. The separation of methyl chloride using condensers was investigated. The proposed microreactor-condenser concept enables the production of methyl chloride with a high purity of 99%.

Structure and function of the selectin ligand PSGL-1

P-selectin glycoprotein ligand-1 (PSGL-1) is a dimeric mucin-like 120-kDa glycoprotein on leukocyte surfaces that binds to P- and L-selectin and promotes cell adhesion in the inflammatory response. The extreme amino terminal extracellular domain of PSGL-1 is critical for these interactions, based on site-directed mutagenesis, blocking monoclonal antibodies, and biochemical analyses. The current hypothesis is that for high affinity interactions with P-selectin, PSGL-1 must contain O-glycans with a core-2 branched motif containing the sialyl Lewis x antigen (NeuAca2®3Galß1®4[Fuca1®3]GlcNAcß1®R). In addition, high affinity interactions require the co-expression of tyrosine sulfate on tyrosine residues near the critical O-glycan structure. This review addresses the biochemical evidence for this hypothesis and the evidence that PSGL-1 is an important in vivo ligand for cell adhesion.

Newborn screening for biotinidase deficiency in Brazil: biochemical and molecular characterizations

Biotinidase deficiency is an inherited metabolic disorder characterized by neurological and cutaneous symptoms. Fortunately, it can be treated and the symptoms prevented by oral administration of the vitamin biotin. Using dried blood-soaked filter paper cards, biotinidase activity was determined in the sera of 225,136 newborns in Brazil. Mutation analysis performed on DNA from 21 babies with low serum biotinidase activity confirmed that 3 had profound biotinidase deficiency (less than 10% of mean normal sera biotinidase activity), 10 had partial biotinidase deficiency (10 to 30% of mean normal serum activity), 1 was homozygous for partial biotinidase deficiency, 4 were heterozygous for either profound or partial deficiency, and 3 were normal. Variability in serum enzyme activities and discrepancies with mutation analyses were probably due to inappropriate handling and storage of samples sent to the laboratory. Obtaining an appropriate control serum at the same time as that of the suspected child will undoubtedly decrease the false-positive rate (0.09%). Mutation analysis can be used to confirm the genotype of these children. The estimated incidence of biotinidase deficiency in Brazil is about 1 in 9,000, higher than in most other countries. Screening and treatment of biotinidase deficiency are effective and warranted. These results strongly suggest that biotinidase deficiency should be included in the newborn mass screening program of Brazil.

Comparison of voluntary ethanol intake by two pairs of rat lines used as genetic models of anxiety

The relationship between anxiety-related behaviors and voluntary ethanol intake was examined in two pairs of rat lines by the oral ethanol self-administration procedure. Floripa high (H) and low (L) rats selectively bred for contrasting anxiety responses in the open-field test, and two inbred strains, spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR) and Lewis rats which are known to differ significantly when submitted to several behavioral tests of anxiety/emotionality, were used (9-10 animals/line/sex). No differences in the choice of ethanol solutions (2%, days 1-4, and 4%, days 5-8, respectively) in a 2-bottle paradigm were detected between Floripa H and L rats (1.94 ± 0.37 vs 1.61 ± 0.37 g/kg for ethanol intake on day 8 by the Floripa H and L rat lines, respectively). Contrary to expectations, the less anxious SHR rats consumed significantly more ethanol than Lewis rats (respective intake of 2.30 ± 0.45 and 0.72 ± 0.33 g/kg on day 8) which are known to be both addiction-prone and highly anxious. Regardless of strain, female rats consumed more ethanol than males (approximately 46%). The results showed no relationship between high anxiety and voluntary intake of ethanol for Floripa H and L rats. A negative association between these two variables, however, was found for SHR and Lewis rat strains. Data from the literature regarding the association between anxiety and alcohol intake in animal models are not conclusive, but the present results indicate that factors other than increased inborn anxiety probably lead to the individual differences in ethanol drinking behavior.